Caribbean corals have suffered from bleaching, diseases, and Diadema die-off. Reefs on narrow shelves adjacent to large human populations with many fishers (Colombia, Curacao, Jamaica, Venezuela) suffer from runoff of sediment and pollutants, over-fishing, and now show signs of degradation (fewer fish, more algae, less coral cover). Where shelves or banks are wide, or far from human populations, reefs are less disturbed. Islands with fewer people and little fishing pressure (Bonaire, Cayman) have good reefs. Here, diving tourism is economically important, and there is greater awareness of reef conservation. Cayman has the best-developed national coastal area management plan, while most other countries have marine protected areas. These are stimulating improved coastal management, aided by increasing numbers of nongovernmental organisations (NGOs).

Coral reefs have been degraded in all the six countries: Aruba; Netherlands Antilles (Bonaire and Curacao); Cayman; Jamaica; and reefs off the mainland of South America; Colombia; and Venezuela. Reefs on Bonaire and Cayman are in the best condition, while those showing the greatest damage are on the north coast of Jamaica, and at Moroccoy, Venezuela. Both natural and human impacts are implicated, often compounding each other, in all countries.

Hurricanes make the largest natural impacts on coral reefs. Their effects are greater in the northern Caribbean and are relatively rare off the South American mainland. They are often triggers for other major changes, because chronic human disturbances have altered the natural conditions and prevented normal recovery. Diseases are important (apparently natural) factors. Acropora corals, the dominant reef-builders in the Caribbean, have suffered high mortality from white-band disease. The large populations of the grazing sea-urchin, Diadema antillarum, have not recovered from the mass mortality in 1983, which resulted in massive increases in the amount of large algae in many areas.

Human impacts have greatly increased as populations and development expanded, and have resulted in more sediment and nutrient pollution, and over-fishing. The impacts are greatest near cities, towns, and villages, and on reefs on narrow shelves near large populations (like north Jamaica). Where shelf and reef areas are larger (south coast of Jamaica, Caymans), reef fish are larger and more abundant, and help prevent algal overgrowth.

Aruba is a small island (32 km by 10 km) off Venezuela, with considerable tourism development based on the reefs, particularly for SCUBA divers. However, from 1980 to 1982, white-band disease killed over 90% of the staghorn corals (Acropora cervicornis) in shallow waters, and the disease also decreased the coral’s ability to regenerate after physical damage. Like other parts of the Caribbean, the black-spined sea-urchin, Diadema antillarum, almost died off in 1983. Reefs on the southern and western coasts have been severely degraded by recreational uses, and by various kinds of pollution, including pollution from an oil refinery, which closed in 1985 but re-opened in 1992. Corals, reef fish, and other organisms have been legally protected since 1980, effectively banning spearfishing and the collection of corals. Legislation exists to establish protected areas; but no protected areas have been created, although this is considered a priority. Elements in the private sector have become active in protection of the reefs, with initiatives such as installing mooring buoys at major diving sites, and an annual reef-care clean-up programme.

Grand Cayman, Little Cayman, and Cayman Brac, are small, low islands (33 km by 10 km, 14 km by 3 km and 17 km by 3 km, respectively) to the southwest of Cuba. The islands have well-developed fringing reefs on the narrow shelves around them, which end as steep walls dropping to great depths. The Cayman Islands have grown phenomenally in the last 30 years, from an undeveloped country, to a thriving financial centre and popular tourist destination. The resident population has grown from 8500 to 30,000, but 600,000 people visit on cruise ships, and another 280,000 tourists, including many divers, come each year. Seafood is really popular, and there are considerable pressures on stocks of conch, lobster, and fish.

Hurricanes can cause major impacts, such as caused by Gilbert in 1988. As in the rest of the Caribbean, Diadema antillarum died out in 1983, but this did not result in an algal bloom, because grazing fish were still abundant. Now the Diadema seem to be coming back in areas on west Grand Cayman. There was large-scale bleaching of corals in 1987, and even worse bleaching in 1995–1996 and 1997–1998. White-band disease has been seen, but the staghorn (Acropora) coral species are still common, although impacted by storms. The deeper reefs off George Town have been destroyed by the continual anchoring of cruise ships, and nearby shallow reefs have been damaged by the resulting sedimentation. Another major source of stress on the reefs is from the thousands of divers.

The condition of most Cayman reefs is relatively good, but veteran divers say they are deteriorating. The government is starting monitoring, in addition to the two CARICOMP sites, and has banned the taking of any marine life using SCUBA. Fishing of conch, lobster, and turtle is controlled, and the discharge of harmful effluent and raw sewage is banned. There is now concern about polluted groundwater seeping out into coastal waters, because much sewage is disposed of by deep well injection. Reef fish are still abundant, although the increasing use of large Antillean traps with small mesh wire is causing concern. The government has established Marine Park Zones (only line fishing from the shore or out in deep water); Replenishment Zones (no spearfishing, no collecting of conch or lobster, and no fishtraps); and an Environmental Zone (no hunting, fishing, swimming, or anchoring). These zones include about 34% of coastal waters, and are enforced by four full-time Marine Enforcement Officers, backed up by the possibility of heavy fines.

The Caribbean coast of Colombia has a 40 km wide continental shelf, which is strongly influenced by freshwater and sediment runoff. In the centre is the Magdalena river, the largest river discharging directly into the Caribbean Sea. There are about two million people living on the Colombian coast, mostly in three port cities Barranquilla (large and industrial), and Cartagena and Santa Marta, which are dependent on tourism. There are significant human impacts in the coastal zone from sewage and chemical pollution, coastal construction, over-fishing, dynamite fishing, mangrove logging, and tourism. Sediments cover most of the shelf and there are few coral reefs near the mainland.

There are many well-developed reefs around offshore islands, including the Islas de San Bernardo and the Islas del Rosario on the shelf, and a few distant coral banks and atolls (the Colombian archipelago of San Andres and Providencia). San Andres is densely populated with about 50,000 people in 30 km². It is an active commerce and tourism centre, and human impacts on the reefs include sewage pollution, dredging, coastal construction, over-fishing, tourism, oil pollution, and boat and anchor damage. There are few hurricanes this far south, but the San Andres archipelago suffers occasional impacts. Diadema died out in 1983, there were mass mortalities of gorgonians in the 1980s, and significant coral bleaching in the 1980s and in 1995.

The reefs of Punta Betin and Isla Morro Grande are impacted by pollution and sediment, and have fewer coral species (20) and less coral cover (19–26%), than the reefs of the Tayrona National Park, where few people live (a CARICOMP monitoring site with 26 coral species and 37–49% coral cover). Human impacts have probably affected coral reproduction, as colonies of Montastrea cavernosa had smaller gonads and lower fertility on the polluted reefs. Moreover, there are now fewer coral species and lower coral abundance at Punta Betin than in 1972 and 1975, which also suggests that pollution from Santa Marta Bay is affecting the reefs. In the last 10 years, there has also been extensive mortality of branching (Acropora palmata, A. cervicornis, Porites Porites) and foliose (Agaricia tenuifolia) corals in shallow waters at Tayrona, and considerable mortality of massive corals (Stephanocoenia intersepta, Montastrea annularis, Colpophyllia natans, Diploria spp.) in deeper water.

Extensive coral mortality has occurred around the coral reef islands near Cartagena: Islas de San Bernardo and Islas del Rosario. Acropora species, P. Porites and Ag. tenuifolia were severely affected, and some massive corals also declined. The reefs of San Andres were healthy from 1968 to 1973, but they were found to be in poor condition in 1992, with about 52% of the coral recently dead. The corals most affected were Acropora cervicornis (which has almost disappeared from around San Andres), Ac. palmata, Eusmilia fastigiata and C. natans. Since then, many algae have proliferated (mainly Dictyota, Halimeda, Lobophora and Padina).

Similar results were seen at the three unpopulated atolls of San Andres and Providencia (Courtown, Serrana, and Roncador) in 1994–1995. The amount of recently dead coral was between 43% and 56%, with the most affected species being branching (Acropora spp., Porites Porites) and massive corals (Montastrea annularis, Siderastrea siderea, C. natans, Diploria spp.). However, the mortality of the two Acropora species and Gorgonia spp. were much lower than on San Andres.

Environmental management was boosted by creation of the Ministry of the Environment in 1993, which administers national parks and reserves, including Tayrona and Islas del Rosario. Both have some local rangers to enforce regulations, but resources and infrastructure are still insufficient for effective control. Management plans and legislation are being prepared for these and other proposed protected areas (including Islas del San Bernardo, San Andres, and Providencia). Legislation and regulations are also being prepared for coastal area management and further protection of mangroves, seagrass beds, and coral reefs. A nation-wide monitoring programme, on both Atlantic and Pacific coasts, was introduced in 1998.

The large island of Jamaica (235 km by 80 km) is in the centre of the Caribbean Sea. Cuba, 150 km north, moderates the effects of the northeast trade winds on the well-developed fringing reefs of the north coast, which grow on a very narrow shelf. Patchy reef formations on the south coast grow on a shallow shelf up to 20 km wide, but are punctuated by rivers and sediment slopes. Reefs and corals also grow on neighbouring banks at the Pedro Cays, 70 km south, and the Morant Cays, 50 km southwest. The Jamaican population has doubled in the last 30 years to about 2.5 million. There are many coastal communities, industries are concentrated on the southeast around Kingston, and there has been much recent tourism development on the north coast.

Jamaican reefs suffered little storm damage for more than 30 years, until they were severely impacted by Hurricane Allen in 1980. In the same year, there was some white-band disease in Acropora cervicornis, while in 1983, the abundant sea-urchin Diadema antillarum died off. These combined natural impacts marked the beginning of a major deterioration of Jamaican coral reefs. The reefs did not recover because of insidious, chronic human disturbance, notably over-fishing, and increased sediment and pollution runoff. Over-fishing on the narrow north-coast shelf was obvious in the 1960s, but the unusually high abundance of Diadema grazed down the algae and allowed the corals to dominate. When the Diadema died, algae grew over the reefs, smothered living corals, and prevented new corals settling. This algal growth was helped by nutrient pollution and the removal of grazing fish.

Soil erosion has been a major problem in Jamaica for 50 years, and sedimentation is damaging the reefs near river mouths. Nutrient pollution has increased as human populations grew, particularly in Kingston Harbour and near coastal communities, where nitrates percolate through porous limestone onto the reefs. Increased coral mortality occurs to the west of Kingston Harbour, showing the impact of a pollution plume. Jamaican corals also suffered mass bleaching in the winters of 1987, 1989 and 1990, with considerable mortality.

In the late 1970s, nine reefs on the north coast had coral cover averaging 52% at 10 m depth, but this declined to 3% in the 1990s, in parallel with an increase in fleshy macroalgae from 4% to 92%. Even in areas once dominated by massive corals at Discovery Bay, coral cover is only about 10%, and 14% in Montego Bay Marine Park. In shallow water, where sea-urchin numbers have increased, opportunistic corals have recruited and cover is increasing slightly. Some coral populations around the Port Royal Cays are in good health (coral cover up to 20%) with abundant Acropora cervicornis.

For many years, the main law controlling coastal development was the Beach Control Act (1960), which licensed construction or drainage works near the shore. However, it was easy to ignore. Environmental management has been greatly strengthened by the Natural Resources Conservation Act (1994), and increased staffing of the Natural Resources Conservation Authority, in the Ministry of Environment and Housing. The Ocho Rios and Montego Bay Marine Parks were classic ‘paper parks’ with no staff or funding until 1989, when the Montego Bay Park was revitalised with USAID funding. In 1998, new land/sea coastal management areas have been created at Negril and the Portland Bight. Also in 1998, the potential for better integrated management of the coastal zone received a boost with the formation of a Council on Ocean and Coastal Zone Management, on which all major sectors are represented, and which reports directly to Cabinet.

Government efforts in conservation and reef management have been increasingly supplemented by NGO activities. Local groups have formed all around the country, and several are doing valuable work in the coastal zone (Negril Coral Reef Preservation Society, Portland Environmental Protection Association, St. Ann Environmental Protection Association, and Caribbean Coastal Area Management Foundation). The Fisheries Improvement Programme, at the Discovery Bay Marine Laboratory, is helping artisanal fishermen to manage their own fishery resources. The CARICOMP monitoring site at Discovery Bay is soon to be joined by others at Portland Bight and Montego Bay. In addition, long-term monitoring for the effects of climate change is to be carried out for the Caribbean Planning for Adaptation to Climate Change project.

Bonaire (38 km by 10 km) and Curacao (61 km by 14 km) are small oceanic islands about 70 km north of Venezuela. Each lies on a northwest to southeast axis, with the east coasts exposed to persistent trade winds. The shelf around each island is narrow, about 8–12 m deep for about 100 m, then the shelves slope steeply to a sandy terrace at 50–60 m, and then drop off. Coral reefs are well developed on the leeward coasts, but on the windward coasts, the shallow areas are dominated by crustose algae and Sargassum, and the corals grow best in deeper water.

Tourism is the most important industry in Bonaire, increasing at 10% per year for the last 10 years. The resident population is about 11,000 and growing, while there are about 60,000 visitors per year, of whom 26,000 are divers. Building along the coast is booming for tourism and housing, but sediment runoff is increasing from this construction, and there is no central sewage treatment. Fishing is mostly for pelagic fish, and is rare on the reefs.

Curacao has a population of 160,000, which is decreasing, while environmental pressures are increasing dramatically. The economy is based on oil refining, other industries, tourism, and off-shore banking. Massive coastal development is the biggest threat to the reefs, with raw sewage discharge, harbour pollution, and sedimentation from deforestation. Most fish caught are pelagics, with the reef fish catch estimated at 90–180 tonnes per year.

Bonaire and Curacao are on the margin of the hurricane and storm belt. But when hurricanes and storms do impact, their effects are marked. White-band disease caused similar massive damage to Acropora cervicornis in 1980–1981 as it did at Aruba. Diadema antillarum died off in 1983, with a parallel increase in large algae. There was mass bleaching of corals in 1987, 1990, and 1995.

Coral cover at four sites on Curacao and Bonaire decreased from 55–50% to 30–25% at 10 m and 20 m between 1973 and 1992, but was mostly unchanged at 30 m and 40 m depth. The decreases are probably due to increased growth of large algae and ascidians because of increased pollution.

The general condition of Bonaire reefs is good, and the impact of anchoring and sewage pollution is localised. Reef fish are abundant and biomass is high. The healthiest reefs in Curacao are upstream of the population centres, away from pollution by coastal development and industry. The reefs are also protected by rougher waters and poor access for the public, and pressure from fishing and diving is limited. Elsewhere, the condition of reefs and fish populations have degraded.

The Bonaire Island government introduced marine resource management in the 1970s, banning spearfishing and collection of coral. The Bonaire Marine Park (created in 1979) now extends all around the coast, and like other parks in the Netherlands Antilles, it is administered by a private foundation (STINAPA Netherlands Antilles). There are zonation and management plans, CARICOMP monitoring, permanent moorings, and a visitor centre. The Park is completely self-financed by diver fees of US$10 per year, grants, and donations.

The Reef Management Ordinance (1976) prohibits spearfishing and collection of coral in Curacao, and is still the only legislation. The Curacao Underwater Park (20 km from the eastern tip, Oostpunt, to the capital Willemstad) was opened in 1983, but has no legal status, and is ineffective due to a lack of funds. A management plan was produced in 1995, and legislation is being upgraded to start management in 1997. Meanwhile, a CARICOMP site has been operated since 1994.

Reef coral development is limited by freshwater and sediment runoff, and cool upwellings. Nearshore coral reefs are scarce, with small reefs at Moroccoy and Mochima. Better reefs occur around offshore oceanic islands, which include the Archipilago Los Roques. There has been much industrial, urban, and tourist development on the coast, with consequent sediment, human, and industrial pollution. There is intensive fishing on the fringing continental reefs and at Los Roques (lobster, conch, and fish). The island reefs are less exploited for tourism, but there is no control.

Hurricanes are relatively rare. There was mass mortality of Diadema in 1983, and large-scale bleaching of corals in 1987, and much more in 1995–1996. Some reefs are currently affected by terrestrial runoff. Recently, there has been mass mortality of marine organisms on the Moroccoy National Park reefs, which eliminated almost all massive coral species. Previously, the cover by massive species alone had been relatively high, at 36%.

Conservation is the responsibility of MARNR; INPARQUES manages protected areas and the national parks at Los Roques, Mochima and Moroccoy. There are many laws, regulations and management plans, such as declaring the coastal strip 80 m wide, including the mangroves, as a protected area, but there are insufficient boats, trained personnel, and funds, and the laws are not fully implemented. The navy controls many oceanic islands, restricting tourism and fishing. Some NGOs support reef research programs, for example ECONATURA gives grants for small projects in protected areas, and trains personnel to monitor physical and chemical variables in marine parks. FUDENA maintains a marine turtle conservation programme. CARICOMP sites are located at Moroccoy and Margarita Islands.

Two significant resource management trends can be seen in the region. First, there is a progression from protecting species, to protecting habitats, then to protecting the wider ecosystem and, ultimately, nation-wide environmental management. No countries have reached that goal, however, most have established marine protected areas (MPAs), mostly as national parks. Most receive too little funding to be fully effective, but they play a valuable role in attracting public and government attention to the importance of natural resources. They stimulate Integrated Coastal Management (ICM) and become valuable centres for learning, and developing appropriate measures, although mostly on a small scale. Integrated management is still hampered by the multiple agencies involved, but some countries (e.g. Cayman) have created more unified structures for environmental decision-making by restructuring departments and creating consultative committees (as in Jamaica).

The small island states of Bonaire and Cayman depend heavily on marine resources and have established more effective conservation mechanisms than the nearby islands of Curacao and Jamaica, where there are many more competing interests. Cayman recently declared a moratorium on development, while Bonaire and other ‘island paradises’ have not yet established carrying limits.

The second trend is a move from ‘top-down’ control by government, to ‘bottom-up’ participation by local resource users and development of co-management. Enforcement of environmental laws requires political will, trained staff and money. Most natural resource agencies are understaffed, and rangers either do not enforce environmental laws, or impose minimal fines. Environmental management by governments is expensive and inefficient; whereas management by an informed and involved population is cheaper and more likely to succeed. As people become aware of environmental issues, politicians follow. In the last 10 years, environmental managers and funding agencies have increased the involvement of all ‘stakeholders’ in environmental planning and regulation. There has been much talk, and some action, towards co-management in the region, and the participation of NGOs in coastal management has increased. They are contributing to reef monitoring in some cases in association with CARICOMP, which is represented in five of the six countries. In addition, assessments were made for Reef Check in 1997, in Cayman and Bonaire.

The authors for this review were: Jeremy Woodley, University of the West Indies, Jamaica; Kalli De Meyer, Bonaire Marine Park; Phillippe Bush and Gina Ebanks-Petrie, Department of the Environment, Grand Cayman; Jaime Garzon-Ferreira, INVEMAR, Colombia; Eduardo Klein, Universidad de Simon Bolivar, Venezuela; Leendert Pors, Ecological Institute, Curacao; and Cornelius Wilson, Ministry of Transport, Communication and Utilities, Aruba.