The Lesser Antilles include high volcanic islands with very narrow continental shelves, and some low coral islands with wider shelves. There are some excellent coral reefs, which are normally impacted by rainfall and runoff, and hurricanes. Recently, coral bleaching, coral diseases, tourism, and fishing pressure have resulted in some degradation in many areas, but there are few long-term studies to determine the status of the reefs, and the trends. There has been an increase in the number of reefs under active and effective management, and the need for better management is being recognised.

There has been progressive degradation of reefs in the Lesser Antilles over the past 10 to 20 years. But there is also growing recognition of the economic and ecological value of reefs, and increasing monitoring and management of coral reefs. Many of the reefs now have less live coral cover, fewer and smaller fish, and more algae than before, because of both human and natural impacts. Recent hurricanes have been very damaging (Hurricane Gilbert in 1988; Hugo in 1989; Luis and Marilyn in 1995), and also coral diseases have caused a lot of coral death. The impacts of Hurricane Georges (September 1998) are yet to be assessed.

Over 40 species of hard corals have been found on the United States Virgin Islands reefs, but the primary reef-building coral in the shallow water of many reefs, Acropora palmata, has been severely affected by white-band disease and shows little recovery. Any new colonies have been destroyed by major storms, along with much of the other major reef-builder, Montastrea annularis. There have been several episodes of coral bleaching, probably associated with above normal water temperatures, which have caused partial mortality of many species. The massive die-off of the long-spined sea-urchin, Diadema antillarum, in 1983, and over-fishing, have resulted in dramatic increases in macroalgae, which are smothering coral colonies and reducing coral recruitment and survival. On the steep-sided islands, there has been heavy runoff of sediments and nutrients onto the reefs because increased populations are clearing the hillsides.

Tourism has expanded rapidly in the region with more cruise ships, new docks, marinas, and hotels, along with more dredging, and filling of coastal areas. Diving tourism is developing rapidly, and there are worries that the carrying capacity of these small reef areas has been exceeded already.

Over 40 coral species occur on the United States Virgin Islands reefs of St. Thomas, St. John, and St. Croix. Most of the reefs are shallow fringing reefs, parallel to the coast, or corals growing on submerged boulders and rocky ridges near the shore. There are the same pressures as on other Caribbean reefs: four hurricanes and many other major storms in the last 15 years; higher than normal water temperatures; coral diseases; destruction from boat anchors and boat groundings; careless land use; dredging; pollution; and over-fishing. All these cause reef deterioration. In the last 15 to 20 years, live coral cover has declined while the algae have increased, because there are few herbivorous fish and sea-urchins to control them.

The biggest recent change on the United States Virgin Islands has been the virtual loss of the elkhorn coral, Acropora palmata, due to white-band disease and Hurricanes David (1979), Frederic (1979), and Hugo (1989), which have reduced cover at some sites from 85% to as little as 5%. In 1987, 50 A. palmata colonies in Hawksnest Bay on the north of St. John were reduced to only 10 after seven months because of heavy seas and damage from snorkellers and boats. Coral cover around St. John and Buck Island was less than 30%, but dropped to between 8% and 18% following Hurricane Hugo (1989). The dominant coral, Montastrea annularis, declined by about 35% in Lameshur Bay, and there has been no substantial recovery, although coral recruitment is occurring. Decline in M. annularis is a concern because this is now the major reef-building species in the Caribbean. In 1995, reefs off Buck Island (St. Croix) and St. John were severely damaged by boats, which broke loose and dragged across the corals.

The next biggest threat to the United States Virgin Islands reefs is sediment runoff from coastal developments. A special problem is construction of new roads and development of private land inside and near the parks. Some black-band disease has been reported on Montastrea annularis and Diploria strigosa around St. John and at Buck Island Reef National Monument.

National parks are a ‘mixed blessing’, for example the Virgin Islands National Park attracts one million visitors a year, mostly on cruise ships or smaller boats. But a single anchor drop from a cruise ship in 1988 destroyed 300 m2 of reef, with no significant recovery eight years later. Mooring buoys were installed after it was shown that about 33% of boats were anchored in seagrass beds, and 14% on the corals. Unfortunately, there is little coral left to protect with these measures, and no limits on the size of vessels allowed in park waters.

Tourism has expanded considerably in the British Virgin Islands (Tortola, Virgin, Gorda, Anegada, Jost van Dyke, and approximately 40 smaller islands and cays). Yacht charter and recreational boating, cruise ships, and diving tourism are particularly important to the British Virgin Islands economy. But development for this has resulted in coastal degradation, increased sedimentation, land reclamation, dredging and construction, and sewage pollution. And there has been damage to corals at dive sites from anchors, and from the large numbers of novice divers. Hurricanes Hugo (1989), and Luis and Marilyn (1995), badly damaged corals, particularly shallow-water Acropora palmata.

There are three marine protected areas, and Baths National Park and the Wreck of the Rhone Marine Park include coral reef areas. The National Parks Trust and the Dive Operators Association collaborated to put in permanent moorings to reduce boat anchor damage at heavily-used sites, and to generate revenue for management. Horseshoe Reef MPA, near Anegada, is managed by the government’s Conservation and Fisheries Department, which limits diving and fishing.

In 1993, five marine parks were established, with four protecting coral reefs (Sandy Island, Prickly Pear-Seal Island reefs, Island Harbour, and Dog Island Marine Parks, managed by the Department of Fisheries). Tourism development has had little impact, because most reefs are a long way offshore, but the many visitors result in anchor damage and breakage of shallow corals by snorkellers. The Dog Island reefs are almost pristine, and park managers discourage visitors in order to maintain one area intact, for comparison with the tourist areas. Anguilla has not been hit by a hurricane since 1960, but big waves from Hurricane Luis in 1995 caused extensive damage to Acropora palmata in shallow water.

The Windward island of St. Eustatius has steep cliffs with little shoreline development (except an oil trans-shipment port) followed by a flat sandy plain with little coral growth. Hurricanes Luis and Marilyn (1995) removed large amounts of sediment from the eroding cliffs and severely damaged soft corals and sponges, but recovery was rapid. The Statia Marine Park was established in 1996 and managed by the St. Eustatius National Parks Foundation to protect two sections of reef along the coast.

The Windward island of Saba is very steep, which limits coastal development, and human impacts are minimal. There was little damage by Hurricanes Luis and Marilyn (1995). This is a popular diving destination and all reefs down to 60 m are protected in the Saba Marine Park, established in 1987 and run by an nongovernmental organisation, the Saba Conservation Foundation. There is active management by permanent staff, financed by income from tourism since 1993. No adverse effects have been observed from tourism, but there is a need for studies on carrying capacity to prevent damage from over use.

St. Maarten is a Windward island shared between the Dutch (southern portion) and the French Antilles. The south and west coast reefs are seriously threatened by pollution, devegetation, siltation, and eutrophication from sewage, and much recreational boating and anchor damage. There has been major development following rapid population growth and a dramatic expansion of tourism, but there is no planning strategy and there are no protected areas. Heavy seas from Hurricane Luis damaged reefs, seagrass beds and beaches, and resuspended sand smothered Acropora palmata stands in shallow water, but these have largely recovered. The island government is determining conservation priorities, and is planning a marine park.

The French West Indies comprise the islands of Martinique, the Guadeloupe Archipelago (with Guadeloupe, La Désirade, Marie-Galante and the Les Saintes islands), St. Barthélémy, and part of St. Martin. Reefs are absent on the leeward side (northwest and west) of Martinique, because the shelf is narrow and there is sediment from the erosion of Montagne Pelée. There is some healthy coral growth in patches. The northern coast has little coral growth because of its steepness and high sedimentation. Further south, fringing reefs have developed along the coast protected by a barrier reef.

Guadeloupe has two islands: Basse-Terre is high and volcanic; and Grande-Terre is flat and calcareous. The Caribbean coast of Guadeloupe has the most diversified coral communities on the rocks, but there are no reefs because the shelf is narrow and sedimentation is high. There are fringing reefs on the Atlantic side of the other islands (La Désirade, Marie-Galante and Les Saintes Archipelago). Likewise, there is limited coral reef development around the islands of St. Barthélémy and St. Martin. Hurricane Georges passed directly over Guadeloupe in September 1998.

The coral reefs of Martinique were damaged by swells from Hurricanes David (1979) and Allen (1980), with large losses to Acropora palmata and A. cervicornis communities on shallow outer reef slopes. Guadeloupe was hit by Hurricanes Hugo (1989), which damaged branching corals of the shallow fore-reef zone, and Luis and Marilyn (1995), which smashed corals, sponges and gorgonians down to 25 m and resulted in much sedimentation on the reefs. Hurricane Luis caused some damage to coral reef communities of St. Martin and St. Barthélémy, and generated a large amount of fine calcareous sand that was suspended for months and killed many animals that had survived the hurricane.

Massive coral bleaching has never been seen in the French West Indies, but there is chronic bleaching every year in September, when water temperatures reach 29^oC. The brown alga Sargassum invaded the Caribbean coast of Martinique in 1984 and was still present in 1996. The most probable cause is eutrophication from the city of Fort-de-France. There is proliferation of brown algae (Sargassum, Turbinaria and Dictyota) on the reefs of Martinique, Guadeloupe, St. Martin, and St. Barthélémy. The Pigeon Islets (leeward side of Guadeloupe) are one of the most famous SCUBA diving spots, but there is evident physical damage from 80,000 divers per year. There is some protection with a ban on most fishing activities, and the installation of permanent moorings.

The Grand Cul-de-Sac Marin marine reserve, created in 1987 and managed by the Parc National de la Guadeloupe, is also a Man in the Biosphere Reserve, and includes coral reefs, seagrass beds, and mangroves. The ongoing project to establish a marine reserve in the Baie-du-Trésor, Martinique, has not been completed. There are also two marine reserve projects for the islets of Pigeon and of Petites-Terres on the Atlantic coast of the Guadeloupe. A marine reserve was created on St. Barthélémy, in 1996, and there is an ongoing project for one on St. Martin.

The reefs now have lower species diversity than similar areas in the region, probably because of sedimentation, but are becoming increasingly important for diving tourists. Marine conservation is focussed on the low and dry Southeast Peninsula of St. Kitts, and on deeper reefs off the west coast, which have higher diversity and cover of coral than other reefs. The proposed Southeast Peninsula Marine and Recreation Park has been declared and there are fears that clearing of land will increase sedimentation on the reefs.

Corals occur as scattered patch reefs from 2 m to 40 m off the west and north coasts. Runoff and steep slopes limit the distribution of reefs around the island, particularly near ravines that carry sediments. Large-scale, and ongoing volcanic eruptions are damaging reefs on the south and southwest coasts. Additionally, there has been damage from Hurricanes Hugo (1989) and Luis (1995).

There are low human impacts from pollution and diving tourism, and the reefs were relatively pristine, with high diversity. Trap and spear fishing are potentially destructive, given the limited amount of reef. No marine protection can be contemplated as the volcanic activity has disrupted government.

These are coral limestone islands. Antigua is deeply indented and surrounded by reefs, except on parts of the west and south coasts. Reefs are found along most of the coast of Barbuda, with an extensive algal ridge on the east coast. The reefs are under stress from sedimentation from shoreline tourism development, and destruction of wetlands. Hurricanes Hugo (1989), and Luis and Marilyn (1995), caused extensive damage to reefs on the south and southeast coasts of Antigua, particularly to branching corals on shallow reefs.

The Palaster Reef Marine Park on Barbuda, and the Diamond Reef Marine Park on Antigua were legally established in 1973, but management has not yet been implemented. Great Bird Island will be declared as a protected area after a participatory planning and implementation process.

Reef development is limited on the narrow coastal shelf. But on the south, west, and northwest coasts, corals grow on rocks and on the steep slopes and walls, making spectacular dive sites for the increasing numbers of diving tourists. The small population and minimal coastal development means that the corals are not severely impacted by human activities. No hurricanes have hit since Hurricane David in 1979, however, Hurricane Luis in 1995 caused heavy sedimentation and wave destruction of Porites sp. along the southwest coast.

The Soufriere Scott’s Head Marine Reserve on the southwest coast is about to be legally established, and management has begun the installation of permanent moorings through collaboration between the government and divers.

There are narrow fringing reefs and coral veneers all along the volcanic island coast, with some small patch reefs in the southeast. The spectacular reefs along the west coast are very important for fisheries and diving. Storms have been the major natural disturbance. Tropical Storm Debbie in 1994 was very wet and resulted in heavy sedimentation from runoff, which caused coral mortality as high as 50% near river mouths. In 1995, waves from Hurricanes Luis and Marilyn caused severe damage to shallow stands of Porites sp. on the west coast.

These narrow fringing reefs are under high pressures from the concentration of population along the coast. Tourism and urban development on the west coast around Soufriere have resulted in conflicts between user groups, for example between fishers and divers over reef use, and between fishers and yachts anchoring in fishing zones. Marine reserves and fishing priority areas were established in 1986 and a management plan proposed, but there was no input from the users, and conflicts escalated. Conflict resolution and participatory planning was initiated in 1992 by the Soufriere Regional Development Foundation, a local NGO. After 18 months of negotiation, all institutions and users agreed to the establishment of the Soufriere Marine Management Area. This was endorsed by government, and officially launched in 1995. Management is under the supervision of a Technical Advisory Committee, which includes fishers, hotel and dive operators, community institutions, and relevant government agencies.

The island is densely populated with extensive and expanding coastal development, and tourism. Eutrophication, from development on the west coast, has resulted in increased algal abundance, reduced coral recruitment and survival of juveniles, and increased turbidity and sedimentation. The reef flats were once covered by luxurious growth of elkhorn coral (Acropora palmata) but this disappeared soon after intensive sugar-cane growing started over a hundred years ago. On the offshore reefs, coral diversity dropped by 24% between 1982 and 1992, along with a 34% drop in abundance, and the amount of dead coral surface increased from 22% to 43% over 20 years. The government’s Coastal Zone Management Unit established monitoring sites in 1987, where monitoring will be repeated every five years to ensure good information for management.

The only marine protected area is the Barbados Marine Reserve at Folkstone, on the west coast, and a marine park is planned for Carlisle Bay, with the possibility of management by the Professional Association of Dive Operators, in collaboration with the government.

The shelf around St. Vincent is narrow, with few reefs on the north and east coasts, but good coral grows on the rocks around headlands on the west coast. There are some fringing reefs on the south and southeast coasts. Reef growth is much better on the shelves around the Grenadine Islands to the south, and this is important for fishing and tourism. The Tobago Cays are particularly important, but the condition of the Tobago reefs has deteriorated over the past 15 years due to storm damage, white-band and other diseases, physical damage from fishing gear and boat anchors, and localized pollution from visiting yachts. An action plan to establish the Tobago Cays Marine Park was approved by government, and consultation with resource users has begun. Permanent moorings have been installed to reduce anchor damage by the many visiting yachts.

Tourism development is very intensive on the southeast coast, particularly Grande Anse Bay. A sewage treatment system was installed following reports that nearshore reefs had fewer coral species and more abundant benthic algae, characteristics of nutrient pollution. There are no reports of damage from hurricanes. Reefs on the west coast of Grenada, and in the Grenada Grenadines, are very important for recreational diving, and a system of marine parks has been proposed by the Fisheries Department of the Government of Grenada, but not legislated.

There is a trend of increasing reef degradation in the Lesser Antilles during the last ten years. Human causes include many impacts from coastal development (increased sedimentation, nutrient enrichment, dredging and construction, and clearing of vegetation), and there have also been impacts from more severe and frequent storms and hurricanes, and more coral diseases.

There are large differences in the region in the knowledge and understanding of the need for reef conservation, and in the capacity to establish management and assess the status and trends of reef condition for management. The challenges are formidable, but there have been encouraging advances in reef protection and management. A positive sign is the increasing awareness of the ecological and economic value of coral reefs. Several new parks or management areas have been established and are providing valuable lessons for the region. In Saba and the British Virgin Islands, revenue from user fees makes a major contribution towards ensuring continuity in management, and avoiding the inconsistencies in funding that have hindered progress elsewhere. Low public support for management was a major drawback in the past, so the recent trend towards participatory planning, conflict resolution, and collaborative management is significant. In St. Lucia, collaboration between government, NGOs, and community groups has resulted in constructive and dynamic management, where previously there had been continuous conflicts and inadequate management. Inability to enforce protective legislation was a major hindrance to management, and improved public participation and support are the most effective means of reducing the need for enforcement, especially when human and financial resources are limited. The collaboration of the users also reduces the cost and improves management efficiency. Good examples are the involvement of diving groups in establishing mooring buoys around many islands, including Barbados and Dominica.

There is much to be learned from those islands that have developed effective coastal zone management programmes that are conserving the resources. Many of these programmes provide research and monitoring data on the effects of stresses to improve management in the face of increasing pressures on reef resources.

Allan Smith is at the Caribbean Natural Resources Institute on St. Lucia; Caroline Rogers is at the Virgin Islands National Park on St. John; and Claude Bouchon works from the Université Antilles-Guyane, Guadeloupe.