The reefs vary from those in near pristine condition where there have been few human impacts, to many that are seriously degraded and continuing to degrade. Those reefs off the mainland of China, Japan, and Taiwan have been damaged by sediment and pollution, and are subject to some of the heaviest fishing pressures in the world, including blast and cyanide fishing. Reefs are also heavily impacted by regular typhoons and plagues of crown-of-thorns starfish, and most show major reductions in living coral cover. Few reefs have reproductive-sized fishes. Reefs of the Marianas Archipelago have also deteriorated in both coral cover and fish populations. By contrast, the reefs of Palau, the Federated States of Micronesia, and the Marshall Islands are generally in good health, with serious degradation only around population centres where there is sediment and nutrient pollution. Fishing activity has traditionally been light to moderate, however, there is an almost insatiable demand from Asian and American markets for quality reef products, and fishing pressures are increasing dramatically. Giant clams, sea cucumbers, trochus shells, lobsters, and many of the top quality fish are being depleted on even remote reefs, and there is increasing evidence of destructive fishing (dynamite and cyanide). No reefs in the region are adequately managed, but reef conservation is receiving higher priority in all countries, though the countries use widely differing management strategies. Unless there are concerted efforts to reduce stresses on reefs by reducing human activities and applying sound resource management, there will be a continuing trend of reef degradation.

The Pacific basin has been divided into four regions with two in each essay. These divisions are based on the culture of the peoples who settled these islands, and geographic locality. Northeast Asia and Micronesia (northeast tropical Pacific) are covered in this essay. The companion essay covers Melanesia, in the southwest Pacific, and Polynesia in the east Pacific. There is a wide range of countries, from those with massive populations like China, to those with small populations like Palau; and from the wealthy, like Japan and Guam, to developing countries in Micronesia.

The condition of reefs in this region range from near pristine with few human impacts, to many reefs that are seriously degraded with pressures increasing on them. The reefs off China have been heavily damaged by sediment runoff from floods of the large rivers of the mainland. Fishing pressures are also amongst the highest in the world, along with massively increasing pollution. The reefs of Taiwan are similarly affected, but at a reduced scale, however there are concerted efforts to conserve some of the reef resources. There has been a decrease from 50% living coral cover to 30% during the past decade. Japanese reefs are also chronically damaged by sediment and nutrient pollution, as well as heavy fishing pressures. There has been a policy to line many rivers and much of the coastline with concrete, such that reefs have been damaged directly, or inundated rapidly with fresh water. Indeed, 19% of Japanese reefs have been removed. The effects of a large crown-of-thorns starfish plague in the late 1960s are still seen on many reefs. Between 1972 and 1981–1984, there was decrease in coral cover on 55 of 76 sites in the Ryukyu Archipelago. Reef conservation, however, now has a much higher priority in Japan.

Reefs of the Marianas have generally deteriorated. Since 1981, about 5% of 113 sites around Guam have shown living coral cover over 50%. Coral recruitment has significantly decreased over this time, and over-fishing has reduced the size of fish so much that the reproductive potential of fish is only 5% of what it once was.

The other reefs of Micronesia (Palau, Federated States of Micronesia, and the Marshall Islands) are in much better health, with some damaged reefs around population centres because of sediment and nutrient pollution. Local fishing pressures are slight to moderate, however, there is clear evidence on some reefs of destructive fishing (use of dynamite which smashes corals in a circular area). On most reefs, there is the virtual extinction of giant clams, sea cucumbers, trochus shells, lobsters, and many of the top quality fish.

The stresses are similar to the preceding chapter with tropical typhoons (cyclones) and long-fetch ocean waves being the major physical factors that influence reef growth. There are on average 17.8 typhoons (or hurricanes or major cyclones) each year in the Western Pacific Monsoon Trough, which starts in southern Micronesia and hits places between the Philippines to the south and Okinawa to the north. Guam is in the approximate centre of this typhoon highway, and has been impacted every year on average by a major typhoon. These generate heavy waves, such that the corals on these reefs are very rugged and compact, with few large colonies in shallow water. Many of the islands in the Federated States of Micronesia and southern Japan are gradually subsiding, simulating sea level rise. This will compound the effects of global climate change in these areas. Freshwater runoff with increased amounts of sediment and nutrients have damaged the reefs around high islands, particularly in lagoons and shallow bays, for example Pohnpei in the Federated States of Micronesia, the large islands of Palau, Guam, and southern Japan. The crown-of-thorns starfish (Acanthaster) has had a particularly devastating impact on the reefs of southern Japan, and many reefs have not recovered since the outbreaks of the late 1960s.

Human pressures on coral reefs increase towards the highly populated areas in the west, being particularly high off Asia, and less in the Marshalls and Kiribati. Nutrient (sewage) and sediment pollution is higher near the larger populations, for example Japan, and Taiwan, and lower in the low islands and atolls of the east. Pollution effects are also greatest in atoll lagoons, particularly where circulation is sluggish, and near large towns, for example Tarawa (Kiribati), and Majuro (Marshall Islands). Much of Micronesia suffered major military impacts during the World War II along with coastal construction, particularly the building of airports over coral reefs and construction of ports. The effects of nuclear and missile testing can still be seen on some atolls, for example Bikini, Enewetak, Kwajalein (the Marshalls) and Kanton, Christmas, Malden (Kiribati). Stressed reefs have been unable to recover from Acanthaster plagues in Okinawa and other Ryukyu Islands of Japan.

A rapidly increasing problem in the Pacific, particularly in the west near Asia, is the use of destructive fishing practices, especially blast (dynamite) fishing, poisons (cyanide, bleach) and unattended gill nets. The high demand for fisheries products in Asia has resulted in the accelerated stripping of giant clams, sea cucumbers, trochus, shark (for their fins), sea turtles, and coconut crabs off many west Pacific reefs, and even more remote reefs in the Central Pacific. The explosive demand for live reef fish for the restaurant trade in Hong Kong and other Chinese cities has fuelled an industry based on stunning large fish with cyanide and transporting them in tankers. This has resulted in the local extinction of many reef fish and a trail of dead coral reefs.

This region covers sub-tropical East Asia, to the north of Vietnam and the Philippines, and includes China (including Hong Kong), Japan, Korea, and Taiwan. Most of the coral reefs grow around volcanic islands, with some on the continental shelf. The major reefs are those of Japan, which extend in an arc from the Ryukyus, just to the east of Taiwan, north to the main islands. As well, Japan has the Bonin Islands (a continuation of the Marianas Chain), and the distant Marcus islands (Minami-tori Shima) 3500 km east of Taiwan. The reefs of Taiwan are mostly fringing reefs with some platform reefs. Scattered coral communities and some reefs occur off the southeast corner of mainland China, including Hong Kong and islands to the north, and Hainan Dao island and the Xisha Qundao islands to the south. There is little information for many of the Chinese reefs, except for Hong Kong. To the south of Korea, there are some coral communities growing on rocky islands.

Most of the coral reefs of northeast Asia are heavily exploited, due to very high population densities and market demand for seafood. Reefs near urban centres are over-exploited and remote reefs are also heavily fished, often with destructive fishing methods. The pressures on these reefs and the amount of damage that occurs will increase with dramatically increasing populations and economic growth in East Asia. Tourism is also increasing markedly on many tropical and subtropical islands of Japan, Taiwan, and China, and this is adding stresses to reefs. The principal natural stresses include typhoons, occasional tsunamis, earthquakes, volcanic eruptions, Acanthaster outbreaks, water temperature fluctuations, and occasional episodes of freshwater flooding.

The two types of coral reefs, fringing and offshore atolls, of the South China Sea are very different in status and administration. Little is known of the offshore reefs, particularly since the sovereignty of many of the Paracel and Spratly Islands are politically disputed. These reefs are remote from land influences, but are fished heavily and impacted by military activities.

Corals grow from the border with Vietnam, north to Xiamen (Fujian Province, 24°N), however, there are no coastal reefs north of Guangdong Province (23°N). There are very well-developed coral reefs off southern Hainan Island (18°N). All Chinese reefs are heavily exploited for fish and shellfish, and most have been damaged by pollution, sedimentation, over-fishing, especially cyanide and blast fishing. The reefs in Yalong Bay off Sanya City in Hainan are an exception and, have been set aside as a reserve. These reefs have a high (80–90%) coral cover and diversity, and cooperation between hotel operators and the Hainan Marine Department in 1998 resulted in good protection against illegal fishing. Unfortunately, there are few marketable-size fish because other forms of fishing are still allowed, but the corals are in good condition. The first Integrated Coastal Management project in China started in 1997 (funded by UNDP), with sites in the coral reef provinces of Guangdong, Guangxi and Hainan. These provinces established high-level Coastal Management Committees to plan coastal development and conserve coral reef biodiversity. The Hainan Marine Department acknowledges the economic value of reefs and is creating a functional zonation scheme for Sanya reefs.

The Hong Kong Special Administrative Region (SAR) was created in 1997 when the British colony returned to China. Hong Kong reefs were first surveyed from 1990–1995 by consultants for the Civil Engineering Department, and then by university teams, Reef Check, and the Agriculture and Fisheries Department. The reefs have been badly damaged by sedimentation, sewage, and over-fishing, with blast fishing occurring despite active police work. Most high-value edible species are locally extinct. Many of the best reefs were severely damaged during 1994 when high Pearl River discharges resulted in upwellings, and plankton blooms. Up to 80% of corals died below 4 m when oxygen levels dropped; there was lower mortality in shallow water. Bleaching in 1998 has caused some mortality, primarily of Acropora in shallow water. New marine parks were set up in 1997 to protect small parts of some of the best remaining reef areas in Mirs Bay in the northeast, however, there are no fishing restrictions, so reef fish will remain scarce until the rules are changed. Many artificial reefs have been built with concrete 'reef balls', old ships, and blocks, with plans to cover a sizeable area of muddy-bottom.

The warm Kuroshio Current ensures that coral reefs can grow from 24^oN to 30^oN, and large coral formations grow as far north as 35oN, near Tokyo. Reefs in the south are flourishing fringing and patch reefs in the Ryukyu Archipelago. These reefs have a high diversity of corals (400 species) with many endemic species. Tropical cyclones commonly batter the coastline of southern Japan every few years, but reefs have developed either in sheltered areas or with wave resistant structures. Crown-of-thorns starfish infestations devastated Okinawa reefs in 1969 and have been a chronic problem since then.

There are serious concerns about the status of Japanese reefs, with about one third of coral species at risk of becoming locally extinct. About seven complete reefs (19% of Japan’s coral area) were removed between 1981 and 1990 by dredging and blasting to make boat harbours or breakwaters. Agricultural practices in Japan have been particularly polluting with sediment and fertilizer nutrients. Another harmful practice is straightening rivers and lining them with cement. This increases water and sediment flows onto coral reefs (and also prevents replenishment of groundwater for agriculture). The reefs off the main island of Okinawa have very low coral cover, and did not recover after the crown-of-thorns starfish plague in 1969, because of continual nutrient and red clay sediment pollution. In addition fishing pressures have been high, such that sea-urchin populations have exploded because their normal predators have been removed. These urchins are scraping away the coral rock base of the reefs and preventing new coral recruitment.

Living coral cover on Ryukyu coral reefs is seriously diminishing; 63% of sites have less than 10% living coral, and only 2% have over 50% live coral cover (Table 1). The Environment Agency of Japan noted that only 8% of reefs had excellent coral cover. The Agency has implemented plans for greater protection of coral reef resources and is planning a large coral reef conservation centre in Okinawa. There are six marine protected areas with coral reefs, including approximately 11% of the coral reef area. The World Wide Fund for Nature Japan is investigating ways of improving land management to reduce redsoil runoff. Local fishermen are becoming increasingly active in managing reefs and removed 81,000 crown-of-thorns starfish (28 tons) in six days during 1996.

There are no true coral reefs, but around the Chejudo islands (140 km south of the Korean peninsula) there are coral communities which are particularly rich in soft corals. Plans to protect these islands as MPAs were strongly opposed by the fishing lobby.

There are extensive fringing reefs and some platform reefs around the main island and some smaller islands. The species diversity is relatively high, with about 300 hard coral species, 70 soft coral and gorgonian species, and 1200 fish species. The reefs are heavily impacted by cyclones and also have been invaded by crown-of-thorns starfish. There has been substantial damage to the reefs during the past ten years, with living coral cover being reduced from approximately 50% to 30% and some species of reef fish, gastropods, and crustaceans becoming locally extinct. Destructive fishing practices (especially dynamite), sedimentation from construction and dredging, coral collection, sewage pollution, aquarium fish collecting, and unregulated tourist activities have caused this damage. Reefs in the Penghu Islands (west of Taiwan on the Tropic of Cancer) have been extensively damaged by dynamite fishing, trawling, and sedimentation. The Lu-tao and Lan-yu reefs (southeast of Taiwan) are being damaged by sedimentation and intense tourist activities. Reef fish populations are very low because of aquarium fish collecting and spearfishing.

Encouragingly, the Taiwanese government and scientists are promoting sustainable use of the coral reefs and seven coastal conservation zones have been established by the National Park Department within the Ministry of Interior.

The eight governments in the region (the Federated States of Micronesia [FSM], Guam, Kiribati, Marshall Islands, Nauru, Northern Mariana Islands, Palau, and Wake Island [USA],) consist of islands scattered over a large area in the central and northwest tropical Pacific. Volcanic islands in Micronesia are limited to the five clusters in the Caroline islands just north of the equator, and the 20 Mariana islands further northwest. The remaining Micronesian countries or governments consist entirely of coral islands or atolls. There are 82 atolls concentrated in the FSM, Marshall Islands, and Kiribati. Kwajalein in the Marshalls is the world’s largest atoll lagoon. There are two large barrier reefs: Chuuk (FSM); and the main Palau islands; with a smaller barrier reef at Pohnpei (FSM). Uplifted coral islands are confined to the main Palau islands, and Nauru and Banaba, west of the Gilberts. Stable sea levels or gradual subsidence characterizes the central and eastern parts of the region, promoting atoll reef and some barrier reef development. Stony coral diversity is high in the west (Palau) with over 300 species present but drops off to less than 200 species in eastern Micronesia (Kosrae Island [FSM], Kiribati).

The Micronesian countries consist of five island groups: the Mariana Islands, including Guam and the Northern Marianas; the Carolines (including Palau in the west and the FSM); the Gilbert-Marshalls chain (including the Marshall Islands, Wake, Nauru, and the Gilbert portion of Kiribati); and the rest of Kiribati in the Phoenix Islands; and the Line Islands on the other side of the Date Line. Many of the typhoons that hit east Asia are generated in the southern parts of Micronesia and only develop into destructive storms as they move north and west towards the Marianas and Philippines.

This has the largest population in Micronesia and second largest land and sea area. There are four states, each with a volcanic high island cluster (Yap, Chuuk, Pohnpei, Kosrae) surrounded by 40 atolls and low coral islands. The four urban centres (Colonia, Chuuk Lagoon, Kolonia, and Lelu-Tofol) are the state capitals, with Kolonia on Pohnpei as the national capital. During the past century, FSM coral reefs suffered from soil erosion resulting from logging, agriculture, major coastal construction (dredging and filling), military occupation, and World War II battles. Sunken Japanese warships in Chuuk lagoon now serve as artificial reefs, and are popular with diving tourists. Urban pollution and coastal development continue as the major threats, along with poaching of giant clams, sharks, trochus, and other commercial species from remote reefs. Reef damage is most obvious around the rapidly expanding populations on the large islands. At some sites surveyed recently in Chuuk lagoon (and perhaps elsewhere), blast fishing has lowered coral cover.

The Community College of Micronesia on Pohnpei is a regional centre for education, and reef research, along with the Yap Institute of Natural Science, and there are mariculture facilities in Pohnpei and Kosrae. No reefs in the FSM are given complete protection, but seasonal fishing limits are imposed on trochus harvesting. Dive operators protect the shipwrecks in Chuuk lagoon, as these are part of rapidly growing adventure tourism in all four states.

A territory of the USA, Guam is the largest and most populous island in Micronesia, at the southern end of the Marianas chain. Agana is the capital on the west coast. Guam has two different structures: a high volcanic; and raised limestone part, and has mostly fringing reefs and two barrier reefs (Apra Harbour and Merizo Lagoon). Urban tourism, and military development have modified much of the shoreline and reefs on the central west coast. There is extensive military development on the northern end, and most tourism is on the southern end. Many reefs were also damaged during the war, but have since recovered. The University of Guam and its Marine Laboratory are the major centres for higher education and reef research in Micronesia. Recently Guam established several marine and coastal protected areas (Table 2).

The fringing reefs around this large island have deteriorated since the late 1970s. Corals used to recover from natural damage, such as crown-of-thorns predation and typhoon waves within 12–15 years (from 1% living coral cover to over 60%). In the 1960s and 1970s finding over 50% living coral cover was common; now only 7 of the 113 surveys done in the 1980s and 1990s had over 50% living coral cover, and 78% of surveys showed less than 25% living coral cover. The number of new coral recruits has dropped significantly since the 1970s. Over the same time, there was a similar decrease in fish populations. Between 1985 to 1997, the total catch per unit effort decreased by 78% and also the fish do not produce nearly as many larvae, because the size of fish have been reduced (reproductive potential of the fish population dropped by 95% between 1984 and 1991). The major algal-grazing fishes (scarids, acanthurids, and siganids) have been specially targeted by fishermen and the massive reduction in populations correlate with increases in algal cover, decreases in coral recruitment, and decreases in cover of living coral.

Another major change on Guam is the increased rates of sediment runoff, for example the sediment flowing out of the Ugam River doubled from 1975 to 1993. This was because of poor agriculture, and development, and also because hunters burn large areas every year, so now sediment flow is 243 tons per acre per year.

Table 2. Existing protected areas for oceanic island and/or adjacent coral reefs in the northwest Pacific. Protected areas with an asterisk (*) exclude marine areas.

CHINA – HONG KONG (SAR)
Double Haven Marine Protected Area (includes Mirs Bay HK)
Cape D’Aguilar Marine Protected Area (HK)
Hoi Ha Wan Marine Protected Area (HK)
Sanya Coral Reef National Marine Nature Reserve (Hainan)

JAPAN
Ogasawara National Park
Iriomote National Park
Amami Islands Quasi — National Park
Okinawa Beach Quasi — National Park
Okinawa Old Battlefield Quasi- National Park
Kume-jima Natural Park

TAIWAN
7 coastal conservation zones

FEDERATED STATES OF MICRONESIA
Chuuk Atoll, shipwrecks historic monument
Kosrae Island

GUAM
Haputo Ecological Reserve Area
Orote Ecological Reserve Area
Guam Territorial Seashore Park

KIRIBATI
Birnie Island Wildlife Sanctuary (WS) *
Caroraina (Caroline) Atoll WS
Cook Islet Conservation Area (Kiritimati) *
Malden Island WS *
McKean Island WS *
North Tarawa Conservation Area (Tarawa)
Rawaki (Phoenix) Island WS *
Starbuck Island WS *
Vostok Island WS

MARSHALL ISLANDS
Bokaak Atoll, leased protected area
Pikaar Atoll, leased protected area

NAURU
None

PALAU
Ngerukewid Islands Wildlife Refuge
Ngerumekaol Grouper Spawning Area

These islands have the largest land area and maritime jurisdiction in Micronesia. There is one raised limestone island (Banaba) and 35 additional low coral islands and atolls in three island clusters in the far west. The 16 Gilbert or Tungaru Islands are the largest group, and home islands of the Kiribati culture; the ten Phoenix and nine Line Islands are the two other clusters further to the east, which were only inhabited during the last century. Kiribati laborers were sent to these islands, and they became part of the Republic of Kiribati in 1979, with four of the wetter islands permanently occupied (Kanton, Kiritimati, Tabuaeran, and Teraina). There were previous failed attempts to settle the others, although the government is again proposing to settle some of these arid islands to relieve population pressures on the main islands. More than half of the land is on Kiritimati (Christmas) atoll in the northern Line Islands, and these, plus the nearby atolls of Tabuaeran and Teraina, are targets for population resettlement.

Tropical cyclones rarely affect these islands and there are few other natural stresses. In general, the reefs are in excellent condition, except for damage around population centres. Some reefs, for example Tarawa, were severely damaged or modified during World War II. Major effects now are from urban pollution and road and causeway construction at Tarawa and several nearby atolls, resulting in changes to current flows and pollution of lagoons. Kiritimati and Malden were used for atmospheric nuclear testing about 40 years ago. Phosphate mining has stripped Banaba, and guano mining during the past century has also modified many of the arid uninhabited islands. Fishing pressure is high on reefs around the heavily populated atolls. Plans to establish space-shuttle facilities and tourist resorts on Kiritimati, and to settle some of the uninhabited islands, may cause depletion of reef species and damage some reefs. Kiritimati and several of the Phoenix Islands are wildlife reserves, and the government has established nine marine and coastal protected areas. Small marine protected areas are proposed for Kiritimati, Tarawa, and perhaps Caroline atoll. The University of the South Pacific in Fiji established the Atoll Research Centre in Tarawa as the only research and higher education facility in Kiribati.

The Republic of the Marshall Islands consists of five low coral islands and 29 atolls, with many being very large. Seven of the northern arid atolls are uninhabited, and most of the population lives on the southern wet atolls. There are large towns on Majuro (the capital) in the south and Kwajalein Atoll in the centre. Population is growing very rapidly, and some of the uninhabited atolls are targeted to reduce population pressure on the more crowded atolls. Wake Atoll, in the far north is a US military base.

There are few natural stresses to these reefs, but several atolls (Wake, Enewetak, Jaluit, Mili, and Kwajalein) were devastated during the last war, and by more recent nuclear testing on Bikini and Enewetak Atolls. These reefs have largely recovered, but the nuclear test islands are still contaminated. Urban pollution is severe on Majuro and Kwajalein Atolls, including Ebeye Island, probably the most crowded island in the world. The US military uses Kwajalein and Wake Atolls for missile testing and these developments cause some reef damage through dredging of coral sand and rock, and in-filling to create and develop new land. Large holes excavated in the reef flat pavements of Majuro, Bikini, and Kwajalein, were quickly recolonized by corals, showing that these pavements were good for coral growth, if protected from waves.

The Mid-Pacific Marine Laboratory on Eniwetak Atoll was abandoned in the late 1970s and current science and higher education are provided by a small marine science program of the College of the Marshall Islands in Majuro. The government recently established its first two marine protected areas (Table 2).

This is a single raised limestone island just west of the similar island of Banaba. Both islands were mined extensively for phosphate rock for many decades, but mining is currently active only on Nauru. Reef growth is limited to the narrow and steep ocean faces around the cliff-like shoreline. The main human impacts are associated with coastal construction and operations of the port exporting the phosphate rock. There is also some spillage of oil, phosphate dust, and some sewage pollution, but fishing is limited because the steep slopes are fully exposed to ocean waves.

These northern islands form a Commonwealth of the USA, and consist of about 20 islands and reefs, north of Guam in the northwest corner of Micronesia. The largest islands (Saipan, Rota, and Tinian) are in the south, and consist of high volcanic islands capped or surrounded by limestone terraces. The capital is on Saipan’s west coast at Garapan. Scattered fringing reefs are common along the main southern islands, with a barrier reef off Garapan. Elsewhere reefs are absent or submerged, although extensive reef development occurs around Farallon de Medinilla. Saipan was extensively bombed during World War II, but there is little evidence of damage now to those reefs. Tourism is the main economic activity on Saipan with more development planned on Rota. Tinian is earmarked for future military use.

The reefs are subjected to many natural stresses, especially typhoons, heavy prevailing seas, earthquakes, some lava flows, and colder waters on northern reefs. Harbour and shoreline development is concentrated off Western Saipan, with docks also on West Rota and southwest Tinian. Urban pollution, sedimentation, some flooding, and over-fishing are stresses near populated areas, but heavy and often destructive fishing (poisons, dynamite) occurs along many other coasts. Farallon de Medinilla was a bombing range for many years. Several islands declared as wildlife reserves may include marine areas, and the reefs off Managaha Island may also be protected (Table 2).

These are a complex cluster of volcanic islands in the north and raised limestone islands (including the 500 famous, small ‘rock islands’) in the south, all surrounded by an extensive barrier reef. There are also two outlying atolls (Kayangel, Ngeruangl) and one large submerged atoll-like reef (Velasco) up to 50 km north, and a raised limestone island (Angaur), five low coral islands and one atoll (Helen) up to 600 km to the south.

There are few natural stresses on these reefs, which largely remain in excellent condition. Several of the larger islands have been connected by bridges and causeways (Koror, Malakal, Ngeresbeskang, and southern Babeldaob, the largest island), that interfere with current flow. The population is relatively small, but extensive road and coastal development is under way to shift more population and tourism to Babeldaob, the new capital. There is localised reef damage from this soil erosion, plus sewage pollution and solid waste disposal around the towns, and the export of reef fish for food and aquariums. Sport diving and tourism is growing at an alarming rate, and poorly designed development is resulting in reef damage.

The Japanese Palao Biological Station was abandoned during World War II, and there are plans to build a combined Japanese-American marine biological laboratory in the capital. This will complement the existing mariculture research centre. The government has established a marine protected area (Table 2). The Palauans had a strong culture of marine conservation and the Palau Conservation Society is working with the government, landowners and communities to establish additional reserves. Several seasonal harvest reserves for trochus have been set up on the main islands.

There are quite large differences in the management strategies used by the governments in the region. These differences reflect the different cultures and population densities, and the different extent and status of reef resources. The countries with the most active strategies for management are Guam, and the Northern Marianas. The emphasis for reef conservation is increasing in Japan and Taiwan as both the economies and conservation ethic expand. There is, however, little interest in reef conservation in China and the other Micronesian states of Kiribati, Federated States of Micronesia and the Marshall Islands and Palau. These Micronesian countries still retain considerable levels of traditional management, but this is steadily being eroded.

These are some suggested activities requiring cooperation among scientists and non-scientists to achieve success:

• Better marine environmental education to stress the importance of coral reefs and their conservation;
• Capacity building: training Pacific islanders to manage, monitor, and educate others about coral reefs;
• Coral reef monitoring: measure baselines and trends on coral reefs to convince decision-makers and politicians to take action;
• Establish more marine protected areas, especially on uninhabited or sparsely inhabited islands, before population pressures damage them;
• Community-based management, so that local communities take the lead and also collaborate with governments to manage development and control resource exploitation on their ‘home’ reefs;
• Better environmental impact assessment and research on reef restoration especially near urban areas, and heavily-used protected areas;
• Integrated coastal management: putting all the above together and getting all stakeholders involved;
• Population control: this is especially important for the Pacific islands, where there is a need for considerable public awareness and education, and a need to give power to the women;
• Developing regional centres of excellence to enhance conservation of coral reefs.

Jim Maragos is with the Program on Environment at the East-West Center in Hawaii, Charles Birkeland is at the University of Guam Marine Station, and Gregor Hodgson works in the Institute for Environment and Sustainable Development at the Hong Kong University of Science and Technology.