The tropical southwest and east Pacific covers a vast area with 18 governments or territories scattered over thousands of islands. The largest islands in the tropical Pacific occur in some of the countries, and many others have only small amounts of land resources. The subsistence cultures in most of the islands are heavily dependent on the sea and coral reefs for protein foods, sand and rock for building, and on protection from oceanic waves and storms.

The majority of Pacific coral reefs remain in good to excellent condition, with only those reefs near large urban areas being chronically degraded. But it is these reefs that are often most important for subsistence fishing, recreation and tourism, shoreline protection, and other benefits. Fortunately, about 99% of all reefs occur outside the influence of urban pollution and degradation.

The largest threats to these reefs arise from rapidly increasing populations on these islands and in countries surrounding the region. Where these populations are concentrated, there is significant over-fishing, particularly of resources like giant clams, sea cucumbers and trochus shells. An increasing trend on the remote reefs, is roving bands of fishermen who systematically remove these resources, and use cyanide and dynamite to remove fish for the insatiable markets of Asia. Recent surveys have shown that sharks and lobsters have been removed from even the most remote reefs.

The other major threat to some countries is rising sea levels as a result of global climate change and the possibility of more frequent and stronger El Niño events. Islands that are subsiding rapidly are susceptible to relative sea level rise, and particularly those formed on coral reef atolls where just a half a metre rise will result in sea water penetrating into the fresh water lens under these sandy islands. This will prevent agriculture and remove dry season water supplies, and mean that island cultures will have to be relocated to unfamiliar lands.

The Pacific has four regions: Melanesia (5,500,000 km²) in the southwest Pacific; and Polynesia (13,200,000 km²) in the eastern Pacific are discussed below. Micronesia (8,800,000 km²) in the central and northwest Pacific; and the reefs of east Asia are in the companion review (Ch. 7B). There are five types of island and reef systems within the Pacific:

• fringing reefs including channels and holes around either volcanic or coral islands;
• barrier reefs, including passes and lagoon reefs off high islands;
• atolls including one or more low coral islands generally surrounding lagoon and associated reefs;
• submerged reefs which are subtidal and often associated with deeper terraces and shelves off larger continental-like islands; and
• reef communities where true structural coral reefs are absent, due to less than optimal conditions, or are growing on recently formed rocks, for example volcanoes.

This review covers Melanesia, south of the Equator and in the west of the Pacific, and Polynesia covering virtually all that area to the east of the International Date Line. Melanesia was settled between 13,000 and 40,000 years ago, whereas Polynesia was settled more recently, beginning about 5000 years ago.

Most coral reefs in the Pacific are in good to excellent condition, with those near many urban areas being chronically degraded. Although 99% of reefs are removed from the immediate influence of urban pollution and degradation, many remote reefs are subject to illegal and often destructive fishing. Low live coral cover is not necessarily a sign of unhealthy reefs, as few Pacific reefs have 50% or more coral cover. Because of high wave exposure and tropical storms, reef-fronts and shallow reef flats may be just bare pavements dominated by coralline algae. Most reefs in the Pacific can recover rapidly from major stresses, as they are usually surrounded by deep, clean water, which provides coral reef larvae. Lagoons with limited water exchange with the outside often recover slowly from stress, such as crown-of-thorns starfish predation or pollution.

Coral reefs near the few urban areas are being chronically degraded, and these are the most important reefs for subsistence, recreation, protection from natural hazards, tourism, and other benefits. Reefs near rural or uninhabited islands experience lower levels of pollution, physical modification, and ecological stress. Human populations are increasing rapidly on many Pacific islands and there are high levels of migration to urban centres. Some countries are resettling communities to sparsely inhabited or uninhabited atolls and islands to relieve pressure on the large towns. Without effective population control programs, more reefs will become degraded or polluted. In addition, the massive population increases in Asia and the Americas are increasing the commercial demand for fisheries products, leading to more reef degradation, particularly on isolated and remote reefs beyond the watchful eyes of local residents. However, the bulk of reefs in this part of the Pacific do not face immediate threats.

Stresses to reefs can be either intermittent, or chronic and mild, or severe. An example of severe stress is low average and low winter sea-surface temperatures that restrict coral reef growth in the eastern Pacific and in subtropical latitudes such as in Kermadecs. Large waves arising from polar storm fronts can be particularly damaging to island chains in the Pacific, for example Hawaii, which is exposed from virtually all directions. Many islands, such as Hawaii and Samoa, are relatively new and rapidly subsiding, while others like Vanuatu and the Solomons are older and rapidly emerging. Both processes disrupt reef growth. Earthquakes and volcanic eruptions are common and can bury or damage reefs in many Pacific islands, for example Papua New Guinea, and Vanuatu. Tropical cyclones probably damage more reefs in the Pacific than any other natural stress. Where they are frequent, such as in French Polynesia, or Vanuatu, the reefs are more compact and have low coral cover. Bays, reef lagoons and reefs near river mouths off large islands, such as southwest New Guinea, Samoa, Hawaii, Fiji, and Tonga, are often impacted by massive freshwater flows that kill corals not tolerant of lower salinities, and also prevent re-settlement on the soft sediment bottoms. The El Niño southern oscillation generates warm water around the equator in the east Pacific, which can drift westward through southern Polynesia, sometimes as far west as Melanesia, and may cause temperature extremes and extensive bleaching and death to corals. Another El Niño impact can be sea level extremes, including local lowering of sea level by nearly a metre. When this coincides with spring low tides, corals on reef flats can be killed after being exposed to the air for several hours. Crown-of-thorns starfish (Acanthaster) outbreaks have periodically caused massive losses in coral cover on many reefs, for example Fiji and French Polynesia. There have been few reported instances of coral disease, for example coralline lethal orange disease was observed in the Cooks and Fiji. However, large areas of the Pacific have not been examined.

Human damage to coral reefs includes sewage and sediment discharges off high islands with larger populations, particularly the volcanic islands, for example southeast New Caledonia, Papua New Guinea, Hawaii, Society Islands, Fiji, Solomons, and also on some raised coral islands (e.g. Tongatapu). There are also many other human impacts on coral reefs, for example coastal construction, solid waste disposal, former military sites, over-fishing, mining/industrial pollution, which generally decrease rapidly away from the centres of population. Unstressed reefs recover much better from episodic, natural stresses like lava flows, earthquakes, bleaching, tropical cyclones, lower sea level, and Acanthaster, because oceanic water in most of the Pacific is virtually pristine. A combination of chronic human stresses and natural stresses, for example lower temperatures, subsidence, and exposure to heavy wave action, may permanently degrade reefs, especially near urban centers.

The increase in destructive fishing that largely emanates from Asia is also impacting on some parts of Melanesia and Polynesia. Blast and poison (cyanide, bleach) fishing is increasing as good prices for fisheries products in Asia have encouraged locals to enter the export trade, often abandoning traditional management regimes. The introduction of dive masks, fins, and in some places SCUBA gear has facilitated the near extinction of giant clams, sea cucumbers, and trochus off many Pacific reefs. Giant clams are now being bred in the Solomons and re-introduced to many other Pacific reefs. Shark fishing has been conducted on virtually all reefs of the Pacific, including the most remote ones. Around tourist destinations, there has been damage to reefs from boat anchoring, snorkelling, or reef walking, for example Hawaii, French Polynesia and Fiji. The introduction of alien species has the potential to cause impacts to reefs. Many introductions for mariculture are deliberate (seaweeds, oysters, sponges) or to enhance local fisheries (trochus, green snail, fish). In Hawaii, alien mangroves and algae now monopolise inshore reef flats on several islands, and have displaced corals and other reef life. There are occasional threats from ship groundings and oil spills.

These five countries (Fiji, New Caledonia, Papua New Guinea, Solomons, Vanuatu) in the southwest tropical Pacific are mostly large, volcanic islands that were formed relatively recently by tectonic plate movement, earthquakes, and considerable submergence and emergence. Tropical cyclones are also common at higher latitudes (more than 7^oS). Barrier reef systems are numerous (at least 36) including the world’s second largest barrier reef, surrounding Grande Terre in New Caledonia. Fringing reefs are numerous but generally narrow, due to steady emergence, and submerged reefs are also abundant on continental shelf-like features off larger islands, especially in the Solomons. Melanesia has the highest density of large islands and the most complex reefs in the Pacific. There is the highest biodiversity of corals, fish, seagrasses, mangroves and other reef species, for example there are well over 300 species of stony corals. The species diversity of corals in Papua New Guinea is among the highest, with a slight decrease going south to Vanuatu and New Caledonia, and east to the Solomons, and Fiji, but few recent studies have been made.

Most reefs are in good condition with little pollution and low fishing pressures. However, around the major cities of Suva and Nadi, there is clear evidence of damage to the reefs from development, upland mining, pollution, logging, coastal construction, and over-exploitation. Sedimentation and flooding are also major concerns for reefs near Suva, off the wet southeast coast, and tourism development off the west coast of Viti Levu is concentrated and expanding. Some reef resources, such as giant clams and sea cucumbers, were virtually wiped out after free- and scuba-diving equipment was introduced. In most traditional societies on the outer islands, the village chiefs maintain traditional management practices to conserve reef resources. There is increasing concern that destructive fishing practices, like blast and cyanide fishing, will increase on the remote reefs. The University of the South Pacific in Suva has a good capacity to monitor and research coral reefs. However, no reefs have yet been declared as marine protected areas.

This is a department of France, which is now considering independence. The second largest barrier reef in the Pacific encircles the main island, Grand Terre, which is the third largest island in the Pacific. There are also small volcanic, and uplifted coral islands, and some atolls. The reefs are generally in good condition, with cyclones as the major natural stress. The lagoon waters around the capital Noumea have been polluted by urban and nickel mining wastes. There are also increased sediment flows into the lagoon and onto the barrier reef from mining, forestry, land clearing, and agriculture. Population pressures are low, but there has been some over-fishing, poorly planned coastal development, and clearing of mangroves. The Universite Francaise du Pacifique, ORSTOM, IFREMER, the Noumea Aquarium, and the South Pacific Commission all support research facilities near Noumea. Four reefs have been declared as protected areas (Table 1).

Papua New Guinea consists of the western end of the large island of New Guinea, along with thousands of other large and small islands, plus at least 40 atolls. The barrier, patch, and fringing reefs have particularly high biodiversity, but little is known. The southern reefs are exposed to cyclones, whereas those on the north are in an area of high volcanic activity, with frequent earthquakes. The large island has extremely high rainfall, and has the largest natural outflow of sediment to the ocean. The north coast is adjacent to deep water, so sediment does not remain, whereas the southern coast, especially the Gulf of Papua is shallow and muddy. There is distinct urban pollution of reefs off Port Moresby, but elsewhere sediment from logging and mining pose the greatest threat. Most reefs are in remote, sparsely populated areas with minimal disturbance and often have strong traditional management. The University of Papua New Guinea in Port Moresby is the chief research and education centre, but two other marine stations have recently closed. At least six marine protected areas have been established (Table 1).

These reefs are probably the least disturbed in the Pacific. The mostly volcanic and raised limestone islands have the second largest land area in the Pacific, with a very low (but rapidly growing) population. Reefs are predominantly fringing on the steep slopes of the volcanic islands, and most are in good to excellent condition. Although it has not been confirmed, the Solomons probably have the second highest biodiversity of Pacific reef life after Papua New Guinea. Volcanic activity, uplifting from plate tectonics, and tropical cyclones are the chief natural stresses, as well as sediment from large rivers. The reefs were heavily damaged during the war 50 years ago, but have almost totally recovered. Now the reefs are being impacted by sediment runoff from extensive upland logging and mining. Commercial and perhaps destructive fishing may also be depleting some subsistence fishery stocks. There is some urban pollution immediately around Honiara, the largest town on Guadacanal Island. The ICLARM mariculture facility, and the Forum Fisheries Agency are the chief scientific centres on Honiara. Only one reef is protected (Arnavon), although many others would be suitable (Table 1).

This is the smallest Melanesian country, but has the sixth largest land area in the Pacific. The reefs are mostly fringing, because the islands are relatively new. Natural stresses include cyclones, tectonic uplifting, tropical earthquakes, volcanoes, all of which control reef development. Species diversity is lower than in other Melanesian countries, but still high. Human stresses to the reefs include soil erosion and sedimentation from agriculture, cattle grazing, tropical forest logging, and urban pollution near the capital of Port Vila on Efate Island. Two reef areas are protected, and several others are proposed for protection (Table 1), but there are no research or higher education facilities.

There are 13 governments in this eastern half of Oceania, with more than 113 atolls, 84 fringing reefs, 21 barrier reefs, and 77 reef communities. Virtually all islands started as volcanoes, and there are still large volcanic islands with fringing reefs or barrier reefs in Hawaii, Samoa, and Societies (F.P). There are smaller volcanic islands and reefs in all other countries, except Tuvalu and Tokelau, which consist only of low-lying coral islands. Coral species diversity decreases sharply from west to east with nearly 300 species in Samoa and only a few species in the Galapagos in the far east. This is because most equatorial currents flow from east to west, which reduces the amount of larvae arriving from more biodiverse reefs to the west. However, there are more endemic species (up to 25%) in the east, especially in Hawaii and the Marquesas. Tropical cyclones and crown-of-thorns starfish (Acanthaster) outbreaks are the major natural disturbances to coral reefs throughout Polynesia, with more storms during strong El Niño years such as in 1982–1983. When storms are infrequent, such as in parts of Hawaii and French Polynesia, cyclone damage to coral reefs can be severe because the coral is dominated by fragile forms. Poor reef development in Samoa, Hawaii, and French Polynesia is due to a combination of rapid island subsidence, high wave exposure, strong trade winds, and lower seawater temperatures. Coral bleaching is often widespread in the southeast Pacific during El Niño years.

The 15 islands are in two clusters: atolls to the north; and volcanic islands with some atolls in the south. These are in the southeast Pacific, just to the west of the Society Islands of French Polynesia. Tropical cyclones are the most serious natural stress. The reefs and beaches of the high volcanic island of Rarotonga, the capital, have been damaged by urban development, soil erosion, and construction of a port, airfield, and hotels. Tourism and pearl shell culture (on northern atolls) are the main economic activities and there are two marine protected areas, although Suwarrow Atoll, may now be turned into a large commercial pearl shell farm (Table 1).

Under Chile’s jurisdiction, these two islands are at the far eastern end of Polynesia. There are no reefs and few corals on these old uplifted reefs. Tourism is growing rapidly on Easter Island, which may be a potential threat to the few corals. Both islands are now protected areas, but this does not extend to the marine resources (Table 1).

The marine area of French Polynesia is the largest in Oceania, with more atolls and barrier reefs than any other area. The five major island groups are: Societies to the west (mostly volcanic islands with the most barrier reefs); Australs to the far southwest (mostly volcanic, with poor reef development); Gambiers (with mixed reef and island types) to the south-east; Tuamotus (all atolls except for one raised limestone island, Makatea) in the center; and the Marquesas (all volcanic) in the far northeast. Clipperton (the most easterly atoll in the Pacific) extends the territory of France to near Central America. Tahiti, the largest island in the Societies and French Polynesia, is the capital, and there are rapidly growing populations on Bora Bora, Moorea, Huahine, and Raiatea. Coral bleaching has killed 20–50% of coral cover in the last 20 years, and extremely low tides kill coral on reef flats. Cyclones are not common, but when they occur during strong El Niño years like 1982–1983, damage can be severe. Outbreaks of crown-of-thorn starfish have been devastating.

Major human impacts arise from soil erosion and sewage pollution, such as in Tahiti lagoon and other population centres. Coastal development and shoreline modification for urban and tourism development has changed water flows and caused damage to the reefs. There is heavy fishing pressure on some reefs, including large fish corrals in the passes to atoll lagoons, which remove virtually all species. Atmospheric and underground nuclear testing at Mururoa and Fangataufa atolls ended in 1996, with reef damage from both the blasts and installations. Pearl shell mariculture in many of the atoll lagoons, and tourism in the Society Islands are the main economic activities. At least seven marine protected areas have been established with major research and teaching facilities on Tahiti (Universite Francaise du Pacifique, ORSTOM and IFREMER) and on Moorea (CRIOBE centre of EPHE, and Gump Centre of the University of California, Berkeley). Specialist mariculture centres (EVAAN) have been established on Tahiti and in the Tuamotus at Rangiroa Atoll.

These famous islands, in predominantly cold upwelling water, are administered by Equador. There are no true reefs, but large areas of coral with very low species diversity (about 20 species). Virtually all the coral cover was killed during a large bleaching event in 1982–1983. Fishing pressures have increased dramatically in the past 10 years for the export trade in sea cucumbers, shark, and fish. There are two large marine protected areas (Table 1).

The USA has jurisdiction over the state of Hawaii, some of the nearby Line Islands (Johnston Atoll, Palmyra Atoll, Kingman Reef, and Jarvis Island), two of the Phoenix Islands (Howland and Baker Islands), plus American Samoa (page 99). The Hawaiian archipelago straddles the Tropic of Cancer in cooler tropical and subtropical waters, and is the longest and most isolated in the Pacific. The main volcanic islands are the largest in Polynesia with a population second only to Papua New Guinea. To the northwest, there are a chain of atolls and small islets on old volcanoes. There are fringing reefs on the large islands, and two barrier reefs off northeast O’ahu (Kane’ohe Bay) and north Kaua’i (Mana Reef). Coral and fish species diversity is lower compared to other reefs, but as many as 25% are endemic species (the highest in the Pacific). Natural stresses to reefs are also significant including large waves, hurricanes, earthquakes, lava flows, and low winter temperatures. There are large urban centres on the main islands including much of O’ahu (Honolulu), Maui, Kaua’i, Kona, and Hilo. Hawaiian reefs have always been exposed to soil erosion and flooding because the land masses are relatively recent. During the past century sugar cane and pineapple agriculture, ranching, and game preserves greatly accelerated soil erosion. Now, increased coastal construction for transportation, military bases, shore protection, housing and resorts, and sewage discharges from several outfalls, have increased sediment and nutrient impacts on the reefs. Most sewage and construction impacts have been controlled, but excessive fishing pressure, sedimentation, flooding, non-point source pollution, and invasive species continue to cause damage.

Howland, Baker, and Jarvis are uninhabited National Wildlife Refuges (NWR), and are fully protected by the US Fish and Wildlife Service. The only human impacts were from the use of the islands as temporary military bases during World War II. Johnston is both a NWR, and is used for incineration of chemical munitions and as a refuelling site for air travel. Extensive dredging and filling in the 1960s to expand the base caused considerable destruction to reefs, which have since recovered. Current impacts include disturbance from sport diving and fishing, and discharge of sewage. The military sponsors marine research at Johnston. The Navy recently left Midway Atoll at the northwest end of Hawaii, and it is now another NWS complex, the last of the northwest or leeward Hawaiian islands and reefs to be placed in protected status. Kingman and Palmyra are uninhabited, and there are plans to designate Palmyra as another NWR. Military construction damaged many reefs of Palmyra during the war, but only some of the reefs have recovered.

Hawaii has the most marine protected areas (about 60) in Oceania (Table 1). Hawaii also supports many research institutions and higher education facilities, including state-wide campuses and laboratories of the University of Hawaii (including the Hawaii Institute of Marine Biology), Bishop Museum, several national and state fisheries laboratories, East-West Center, community colleges, Hawaii Pacific University etc. Several nongovernment and community organizations are also active in research, monitoring, and conservation of coral reefs. The national government recently passed an executive order protecting coral reefs, and other state and federal agencies are more active in reef conservation and monitoring.

New Zealand extends jurisdiction over this cluster of volcanic islands south of Tonga in the subtropical southwest Pacific. There is a restricted coral and fish fauna, but no true reefs. Little is known of the marine resources, but there are probably endemic species. Low temperatures, volcanoes, large waves, and infestations of the crown-of-thorns starfish are the major natural stresses. There is some fishing pressure and the area is popular for sport divers.

This small raised coral island between Tonga and the Cooks, is a self-governing territory of New Zealand. Despite having over 40 coral genera, there are no true reefs or a lagoon. Coral communities grow as a veneer on the steep ocean-facing slopes and terraces around the island. The population of approximately 3000 Polynesians follows a traditional subsistence lifestyle, although tourism is increasing. There is some increased sedimentation and over-harvesting of food fish, but scientific information is limited.

The four small islands in the southeast subtropical Pacific are a dependent territory of the United Kingdom. Pitcairn Island is a high rocky island and inhabited, but the neighbouring two atolls (Oneo and Ducie), and the raised coral platform, Henderson, are uninhabited. About 20 genera of corals have been reported, but other information is limited. Ducie has good coral cover on ocean-facing slopes, and corals are rare and seaweeds common off Pitcairn. Coral cover is low on the small fringing reef on the north side of Henderson. There are few human impacts and the recent proposal to construct a dock and airfield on Henderson were not approved.

The Samoan islands are between Fiji and the Cook Islands in the central-south Pacific. American Samoa is a US territory to the east with five high volcanic islands and two atolls. Less than half the 50,000 people live outside the capital, Pago Pago Harbor, on the largest island Tutuila. The Swains atoll supports a few families, and Rose Atoll at the far east is uninhabited. The reefs are mostly fringing, with a small lagoon at Pala on the south coast of Tutuila. There are 300 species and 60 genera of coral.

The reefs were seriously degraded by a major crown-of-thorns starfish infestation between 1978 and 1980, followed by several large hurricanes during the last ten years. Shallow water reefs are showing healthy recovery, despite a widespread coral bleaching event in 1994. Airport construction off the south coast of Tutuila damaged reefs and beaches off Pala Lagoon, Coconut Point, and Nu’u’uli village. Current impacts include over-fishing on many reefs, and urban pollution in Pago Pago Harbor, including sewage discharges, tuna cannery wastes, chronic but small oil spills, sedimentation, and freshwater floods. Road construction on steep slopes exacerbates soil erosion and sedimentation, and rapid population growth and crowding along Tutuila’s narrow coastal plain is resulting in development too close to the shoreline. Reefs at Rose Atoll were damaged in 1993 by a ship grounding and fuel spill. Three large MPAs have been established, and a small community college in Pago Pago, plus the three national agencies managing protected areas sponsor some reef research and monitoring.

The remainder of the Samoan archipelago is independent with two large (Upolu, Savai’i) and several smaller high volcanic islands. Land area is larger than American Samoa, but fringing reefs are poor or absent off many coasts. Apia, the capital, is on Upolu’s north central coast. There have been no detailed studies of the reefs but good surveys were done for reef fish and starfish infestations. Natural stresses have degraded reefs recently, including cyclones, starfish plagues, and coral bleaching. The major human stresses are urban pollution (sewage, trash, runoff, and coastal construction) near Apia, and over-fishing along many coasts. Dynamite fishing off Asau (Savai’i) was reported in the early 1970s using explosives stolen during construction of a new harbour. Early logging on Savai’i contributed to soil erosion and sedimentation on reefs. The move of the South Pacific Regional Environment Programme (SPREP) and a UNESCO office to Apia have expanded the limited opportunities for higher education and awareness about reefs. A single small marine protected area has been established (Table 1).

Tokelau is a territory of New Zealand to the north of Samoa in the central Pacific. The total land area of the three small atolls (Nukunonu, Fakaofo, and Atafu) is about 12 km², and the people follow a subsistence lifestyle. Heavy fishing is the only human pressure on the reefs, although there are proposals to blast small boat channels through the atoll perimeter. This could modify lagoon circulation, lower lagoon water levels, and expose many reef tops.

This is a Kingdom in the south-central Pacific, southeast of Fiji and southwest of Samoa. It consists of 180 islands on a north-south axis. About 37 islands are inhabited, with Nuku’alofa on Tongatapu Island being the capital. There are three island clusters of raised coral islands and atolls with a few high volcanic islands: Vava’u group in the north; Ha’apai group in the center; and the Tongatapu group in the south. Coral reefs are well developed, but few scientific surveys have been conducted. The fisheries are better known.

The major natural stresses are severe tropical cyclones, cold temperatures, crown-of-thorns starfish infestations, and sea-level fluctuations during El Niño years. The major human stresses are concentrated at Tongatapu where siltation, causeway construction, coastal development, and sand mining have reduced lagoon circulation. This, combined with urban pollution, including sewage discharge, over-fishing, and destructive fishing, has severely damaged reef areas. Over-fishing and destructive fishing (with poisons and explosives) are problems on other islands as well. Tonga has established at least six marine protected areas, most off Tongatapu (Table 1).

This is the world’s smallest independent nation and consists of six atolls and three low coral islands, south of the Gilbert and Phoenix part of Kiribati and north of Fiji. Funafuti Atoll is the capital and was a large base during World War II, which resulted in much dredging and filling for port and airfield facilities. Recently, small boat channels were blasted through the reefs of several atolls under environmental guidelines developed by reef scientists, but there was some damage to corals and fish. There is some urban pollution in Funafuti lagoon, but the most serious concern is over-harvesting of subsistence fisheries. Tuvalu is vulnerable to damage from tropical cyclones, such as Hurricane Bebe in 1972.

Management strategies used by the governments in the region include:

• establishing coastal and marine protected areas to restrict access and some reef use;
• setting up fishery management areas and regulations to sustain the yields of reef fisheries;
• using environmental impact assessment for proposed developments to locate and design projects to minimize reef impacts;
• using coastal zone or coastal resource management to regulate occupation and use of coastal areas and resources;
• introducing environmental permits to control the introduction or disposal of pollutants including toxic and hazardous materials;
• formulating long-range land use and zoning plans to promote sustainability and compatibility among the often conflicting uses;
• maintaining and supporting traditional management and tenure regimes; and
• raising environmental awareness and education.

In the whole Pacific, only the US islands (Hawaii, American Samoa, and US Lines, Phoenix, and Wake) employ most of these strategies, and many island countries support only one or two strategies. Although traditional management of resources has worked successfully for thousands of years on most islands, the introduction of western cash or market economies, elected governments, and rapid population growth are rapidly eroding traditional methods across the Pacific. Therefore a greater reliance on other strategies will be needed to conserve reefs in the region.

Establishing marine protected areas (MPAs) is a popular and expanding strategy for managing coral reefs. More than 100 coastal protected areas have been established for the region, but about 40% do not give any protection to adjacent marine areas. Of the 60 true MPAs, 25 were established in the US and its territories (Hawaii, American Samoa, US Line and Phoenix Islands), and only 35 in the remaining 2500 major island and reef systems. In most of these areas, government surveillance and enforcement to protect marine resources is inadequate. Many Pacific island nations have been slow to set up protected areas because they are perceived as threats to local traditional land ownership and resource use that have been in effect for many centuries. However, if the process is truly integrated and control of protected areas given to local people, supported by the national government, together with some financial compensation and education, then this cooperation results in better surveillance and enforcement.

The South Pacific Biodiversity Conservation Program of the South Pacific Regional Environment Programme (SPREP) is promoting community-based protected areas with funding from the Global Environment Facility. Assistance is also coming from other organizations (such as The Nature Conservancy, World Wildlife Fund), and universities (Universities of Hawaii, Guam, South Pacific, French Pacific, and Papua New Guinea), institutions (East-West Center, ORSTOM, IFREMER), and museums (Bishop Museum) with help from universities in Australia, New Zealand, Japan, and the US. SPREP is taking a lead role in environmental conservation with substantial funding from UNDP (United Nations Environment and Development Programme), World Bank, Asian Development Bank, and others. SPREP supports reef management through encouraging environmental impact assessment, coastal zone management, sea turtle conservation, environmental education, and waste management. The Pacific Science Association including its Coral Reef Committee is coordinating activities among Pacific scientists and recently assessed coral reef health within the broader Pacific region (including east Asia, southeast Asia, eastern Australia, and the west coast of the Americas). SPREP coordinated a particularly successful public participation campaign for the International Year of the Coral Reef (1997) and International Coral Reef Initiative (ICRI) meetings in 1996, 1997 and 1998.

Pacific Island governments, outside the US areas, have been slow to adopt reef management strategies such as integrated coastal management and environmental impact assessment (EIA), because there is a preference to use the ‘Pacific way’ rather than ‘western’ concepts of regulations and reef use. French Polynesia has recently adopted a management plan for maritime areas and EIA. The Cooks, and Kiribati are in the process of developing EIA or coastal management plans. Clearly a system of management has to be developed that incorporates both traditional and non-traditional (‘western’) systems of management, with the emphasis on reefs near urban areas.

These are some suggested activities requiring cooperation among scientists and non-scientists to achieve success:

• better marine environmental education to stress the importance of coral reefs and their conservation;
• capacity building: training Pacific islanders to manage, monitor, and educate others about coral reefs;
• coral reef monitoring: measure baselines and trends on coral reefs to convince decision-makers and politicians to take action;
• establish more marine protected areas, especially on uninhabited or sparsely inhabited islands, before population pressures damage them;
• community-based management so that local communities lead and get and collaborate with governments to manage development and control resource exploitation on their ‘home’ reefs;
• better environmental impact assessment, and research on reef restoration, especially near urban areas, heavily used protected areas;
• integrated coastal management: putting all the above together and getting all stakeholders involved; and
• population control: this is especially important for Pacific islands, with a need for considerable public awareness, education, and giving the power to the women.

It would be advisable if several of the small island states with limited land area, but broad ocean jurisdiction, could cooperate as a federation to exert more political and economic influence and better protect their coral reefs. Other than marine resources, these states have limited economic potential and capacity to monitor and protect these ocean resources from the population and market pressures of their larger Asian and Pacific neighbours. From a management perspective, the capacity and power of a small islands federation would be greater than the sum of the parts. Such a federation could insist on improved surveillance, monitoring, and enforcement regimes, demand greater compensation for fisheries exploitation, and insist on effective sanctions against countries whose fishers engage in unauthorized and destructive fishing practices. The federation would also be more effective in seeking aid for capacity building, education, and training to improve conservation of coral reefs and other marine resources.

Table 1. Existing protected areas for oceanic island and/or adjacent coral reefs in the southwest and east Pacific. Protected areas with an asterisk (*) exclude marine areas.

FIJI
Vuo, Draunibata, and Labiku islets

KERMADEC ISLANDS (NZ)
Kermadec Islands Marine Reserve

NEW CALEDONIA
Reserve Speciale de Fauna et de Flore de I’Ilot Maitre (RS)
RS Tournante de Faune Marine
RS Marine Yves Merlet
Parc Territorial de Lagon Sud (Amedee, Bailly, Canard, Laregnare, Signal)
RS de Faune de I’Ile de Pam
RS de Faunae de I’Ilot Represdour
Southern Botanical Reserve (Cap Ndua)

PITCAIRN ISLANDS (UK)
None

SOLOMON ISLANDS No strict reserves but some protected areas.
Arnavon Islands
Tulagi Island Bird Sanctuary (BS) *
Oema Atoll BS *
Mandeleana BS *
Dalakalau BS *
Dalakalonga BS *

TONGA
Eua’ Island National Park *
Fanga’uta and Fangakakau Lagoons Marine Reserve
Hakaumama’o Reef Reserve
Malinoa Island Park and Reef Reserve
Monuafe Island Park and Reef Reserve
Pangaimotu Reef Reserve

VANUATU
White Sands Recreational Reserve (RR) * on Efate
Aore — Bukaro RR (2) * on Espiritu Santo
Naomebaravu RR (2) * on Malo
President Coolidge and Million Dollar Point Marine Reserve
Narong Marine Reserve

AMERICAN SAMOA (US)
American Samoa National Park (Tutuila, Ta’u, Ofu)
Fagatele National Marina Sanctuary (Tutuila)
Rose Atoll National Wildlife Refuge

EASTER ISLAND (Ecuador)
Isla de Pascua National Park (Easter or Rapa Nui) *
Isla Sala y Gomez Nature Sanctuary *

COOK ISLANDS
Avatiu Foreshore Reserve (Rarotonga)
Suwarrow Atoll National Park* (? New status as pearl farm)

COSTA RICA
Parque Nacional Isla del Coco (Cocos)

GALAPAGOS (Chile)
Reserva de Recursos Marinos Galapagos
Sanctuario de Ballenas de Galapagos

FRENCH POLYNESIA
Marquesas:
Eiao Island Territorial Reserve (TR)
Hatutaa Island TR
Mohotani Island TR
Motu One Island TR
Societies:
Manuae (Scilly) TR
Te Faaiti Natural Park (Tahiti) *
Tuamotus:
Taiaoro Atoll Biophere Reserve / W.A. Robinson Réserve Intégrale

HAWAIIAN ISLANDS (US)
Hawaii Island:
Hawaii Volcanoes National Park (NP)
Kaloko-Honokohau National Historic Park (NHP)
Kealakekua Bay, Marine Life Conservation District (MLCD)
Lapakahi, MLCD
Old Kona Airport MLCD
Puu Kohola NHP
Pu’uhonua o Honaunau NHP
Waialea Bay MLCD
Waimanu Valley Nat Estuarine Research Reserve
3 offshore island seabird sanctuaries (OISS)*
Kahoolawe Island:
Hawaiian Islands Humpback Whale National Marine Sanctuary
Kauai Island:
Milolii State Park (SP)
Nualolo Kai SP
3 OISS *
Lanai Island:
Hulopoe-Palawai-Manele MLCD
4 OISS *
Maui Island:
Honolua and Mokuleia Bay MLCD
Kinau-Ahihi-La Perouse Natural Area Reserve
9 OISS *
Molokini Shoal MLCD
Molokai Island:
Kalaupapa NHP
6 OISS *
Northwest Hawaii Islands: National Wildlife Refuge (NWR)
2 OISS *
Oahu Island:
Coconut Island Hawaii Marine Lab. Refuge
Hanauma Bay MLCD
Pupukea Beach MLCD
Waikiki MLCD
13 OISS *

OTHER US (LINE ISLANDS)
Baker Island National Wildlife Refuge (NWR)
Howland Island NWR
Jarvis Island NWR
Johnston Island NWR

NIUE
none

SAMOA (WESTERN)
Palolo Deep Marine Reserve on Upolu

TOKELAU (NZ)
none

TUVALU
none

WALLIS AND FUTUNA (France)
none

Jim Maragos is with the Program on Environment at the East-West Center, Honolulu, Hawaii, USA