Coral reefs of the Middle East vary considerably from the well-developed, highly biodiverse, and near-pristine reefs of the Red Sea, to the shallow fringing reefs in high sediment areas of the Arabian Gulf. Between these are reefs heavily impacted by cool upwellings in the Arabian Sea. Middle East reefs are little influenced by runoff from the land, but experience large variations in salinity and temperature. The major human impacts come mostly from the oil and tourism industries, although increasing urban development on the coasts is damaging reefs through dredging and pollution. There is little active coral reef management in the region, although several large projects are developing national management capacity, and targeting particularly valuable tracts of reefs.

This region contains Middle East countries which border the Red Sea (Egypt, Eritrea, Israel, Jordan, Saudi Arabia, Sudan, and Yemen); those which border the Gulf of Aden and the Arabian Sea (Djibouti, Oman, Somalia, and Yemen); and those on the Arabian (Persian) Gulf (Bahrain, Iran, Kuwait, Qatar, Saudi Arabia, and the United Arab Emirates).

This area is very dry, with large seasonal fluctuations in air and water temperatures, and has probably the greatest extremes in tropical marine climates. The reef animals and plants have been selected to survive under these conditions of high stress. As a result of the low rainfall in the region, few reefs are regularly affected by chronic sedimentation from the land. Near the mouths of drainage channels (wadis), there are often breaks in the reefs or coral communities, because flood-waters and sediment prevent reef development.

The Red Sea and the Arabian Gulf are the most saline seas that are linked directly to oceans, because of high evaporation and low volumes of freshwater input. The Arabian Gulf is shallow with a constricted entrance at the Straits of Hormuz. It has large variations in salinity (40–70 ppt). In the Red Sea, salinity averages 36 ppt near the Indian Ocean, to more than 40 ppt in the north. Few coral species can live in areas of very high salinity.

The Arabian Gulf (1000 km by 200–300 km) slopes from the shallow Saudi Arabian side to Iran, 80–100 m deep. The Gulf emptied during the last ice age, about 12,000 years ago, so species that occur there recruited through the narrow Straits of Hormuz. Coral reefs grow in offshore, clear waters near Kuwait and Saudi Arabia in the Gulf. Some fringing reefs have developed at a few sites near the shore, but are generally not well developed due to extreme variations in temperature and light. The rest of the area consists of mud or sand, with some dense seagrass beds.

The Red Sea is a deep (maximum depth 2850 m), flooded rift valley (2000 km by 180–360 km). Coral reefs grow on the continental shelf, which is narrow (15–30 km) in the north and wide (120 km) in the south. The two arms of the northern Red Sea (Gulf of Suez, 255 km by 14–45 km; Gulf of Aqaba, 180 km by 16–25 km) both have luxurious fringing reefs.

Much of the coastline of the Gulf of Aden, Arabian Sea, and Gulf of Oman is sandy or rocky. Coral communities often develop on rocks, but are limited by cold intense seasonal upwellings.

There are few major natural stresses on these reefs as tropical storms do not penetrate into the enclosed waterways, and runoff from the land is minimal. There have been outbreaks of the crown-of-thorns starfish on Red Sea and Gulf of Oman reefs. On rare occasions, there are extreme low tides (e.g. Gulf of Aqaba) which kill reef flat corals. Many of the human threats to Middle East reefs are shared throughout the region, but are at different levels of intensity, depending on the growth of coastal populations: pollution from towns and industries; oil exploitation and transport; mining and quarrying; and huge power and desalination plants. Increasing quantities of solid waste are being dumped from ships and the land. Reef tourism is expanding with damage from curio collecting and anchors in marine protected areas. Oil pollution, from operational spills and discharge of dirty ballast water, is a continuing threat in the Arabian Gulf and Gulf of Oman.

Middle East reefs provide increasing economic benefits to the people of the region, which can be sustainable, if successfully managed. However, systematic and coordinated efforts to manage these resources are being hampered by the complex politics in this region, weak legal and environmental policy capacity, weak administrations, poor organization, and limited skilled human resources.

The first workshop of the International Coral Reef Initiative (ICRI) in the Philippines in 1995 was attended by only three Middle East states, and by only six states at the Regional ICRI Workshop at Aqaba in 1997. Many countries have received technical and financial help from donor countries, and international organizations, to strengthen their capacity for sustainable management of coral reefs.

The 33 low islands of Bahrain are mostly old limestone with corals (31 species; 19 genera) growing around them. The slopes are gentle with loosely attached corals and little true reef growth. Coral cover is generally less than 10%. The reefs are used by a few traditional fishers, and for recreation. The main human impacts arise from the dumping of dredged sediments, land reclamation, and from oil pollution. The Directorate of Environmental Affairs in the Ministry of Health, and the Bahrain Petroleum Company, are responsible for marine environmental conservation and oil spill contingency plans, but few reef areas are actively protected.

There are a few fringing reefs around several small islands, and some patch reefs in the Gulf of Tadjoura, Gulf of Aden. Little is known of these reefs, although 80 coral species occur on Musha and Maskali reefs. Impacts are primarily from over-fishing, collection of corals and shells, spearfishing, dredging, anchor damage, boat traffic, and resulting turbidity. There is some tourism, and Maskali and Musha Islands are marine reserves with prohibitions on collecting. There is no active reef management yet. The government has started an integrated coastal management project, including the reefs, with assistance from the Global Environment Facility and the World Bank.

The Egyptian Red Sea coast is 1840 km long with extensive fringing reefs facing the Gulf of Aqaba, Gulf of Suez, and the Red Sea. About 205 stony coral species and about 120 soft coral species have been recorded for the Red Sea. The Suez Canal area has about 45 coral species, including some endemic species. Coral cover around northern Red Sea islands is 60–80%, with 20–25% on exposed fore-reef slopes, and in some places soft corals (80%) dominate. Coral cover along the Gulf of Aqaba ranges from 11% to 63%, with higher cover in the south.

The coral reefs are in very good condition, with the only threats being from fishing and tourism. Destructive fishing does not occur, but a few reefs are over-fished, resulting in large numbers of sea-urchins. Tourism results in some curio collection, spearfishing, and anchor damage from dive boats. At one tourist site, coral coverage was 60% only eight years ago, but is now 27%, with anchor damage increasing from 2% to 30%. There have been several oil spills with no significant damage. The reefs are coming under increased management from the Nature Conservation Sector of the Egyptian Environmental Affairs Agency. Areas include the well-known Ras Mohammed Marine National Park (1983) on the Sinai Peninsula, and the Gebel Elba Conservation Area (1986) around the Egypt-Sudan border. Three more parks have been declared recently (Nabq, Taba and Abu Gallum), and two more (Red Sea Islands and Hammata) are proposed for protection.

Reefs on the 1216 km coast of Eritrea in the southern Red Sea are primarily around the Dahlak Archipelago and islands near the coast, many of which are themselves fossil reefs. Reef development occurs usually as thin coral veneers on other substrates, with more developed reefs around the outer islands near the centre of the Red Sea. There is little information on coral abundance and diversity, although surveys have been conducted by the former Ministry of Marine Resources (MMR). The Dahlak Islands are recommended for conservation in an integrated coastal management project in progress with funding from the Global Environment Facility and the World Bank.

The few reefs that occur on the 2000 km coastline of Iran are near the Arabian Sea, and around islands in the Straits of Hormuz. Most of the bottom has soft sediments with a few corals. Information is lacking, with Shidvar Wildlife Refuge the only existing protected area that includes areas of reef. The Iranian National Centre for Oceanography conducted a survey of Iran’s coral resources during 1998 to assist with national conservation and planning efforts, but the results have yet to be published.

The short coastline of Israel (14 km) in the Gulf of Aqaba (Eilat) has fringing reefs except near the ports. The reefs are well studied with 99 coral species in 40 genera, and are in relatively good condition, although affected by heavy tourism development. Coral cover on these reefs dropped significantly to about 5% after extreme low tides and oil pollution, but recovered to near 40% in some areas, although not in other areas near the sources of oil and phosphate pollution (still at 15%). The Eilat Coral Reserve (established in 1964) is well managed by the Nature Reserves Authority, which promotes reef conservation.

The 27 km coastline of Jordan is similar to the coastline of Israel. There is a discontinuous series of fringing reefs with a narrow reef flat, less than 150 m wide, and a very shallow lagoon and back-reef. The reef front drops rapidly to several hundred meters. Port construction has replaced much reef area, and now tourism development is causing damage through solid waste and sewage pollution. The Aqaba Marine Nature Reserve is not actively managed, but is legally protected. Destructive fishing is illegal, and coral collecting and spearfishing are forbidden. The area is the focus of the proposed Red Sea Marine Peace Park.

Kuwait has very limited reef growth, not exceeding 4 km². Isolated corals grow on rocky outcrops, and there are some reefs around offshore cays. All reefs are shallow (to 15 m) with about 33 coral and 100 fish species. Oil pollution and sedimentation cause the largest impacts, and many reefs were impacted during the Gulf War, with some long-term effects of oil pollution. Sewage, outbreaks of sea-urchins, and damage from anchors are other problems. There are no marine protected areas, although some islands are recommended for protection.

The 2092 km coast of Oman has some coral reef development in four regions: the Musandam Peninsula, which separates the Arabian Gulf from the Gulf of Oman; rocky shores and islands near Muscat; the sheltered western shores of Masirah Island and Barr Al Hickman; and sheltered bays of Dhofar and the Al-Halaniyat Islands. There are 91coral species in 54 genera, with about 200 reef fish species. Coral cover drops from 75% to 40% below 10 m, and decreases to 10% below 15 m. Where suitable substrates occur outside these areas, there are communities of scattered corals with live coral cover approaching 10% in places. The major stresses are dramatic temperature fluctuations (ranging from 18^oC to 34^oC, with a mean of 27^oC, and daily fluctuations of 8–10^oC during summer), and crown-of-thorns starfish. Others include infrequent episodic rain, coral bleaching and cancer, black and white diseases, and oil pollution. Tourism is generally not destructive, except for some littering, curio collection and spearfishing. Most physical damage to corals is from fishing gear, particularly nets. Coral bleaching was observed in Acropora and some brain corals. Environmental impact assessments are required for coastal development, and laws prohibit destructive fishing, and protect threatened species. A management plan is being implemented for the Daymaniat Islands, which were declared a marine protected area.

High salinity, temperature extremes, and shallow waters limit reef growth around the 560 km long Qatar peninsular in the Arabian Gulf. Reefs are best developed in the east, but are shallow and low in diversity. There is little fishing or tourism, so the major threats are oil, solid waste and sewage pollution, and impacts from coastal developments. Living marine resources are legally protected.

Reefs occur on the 2510 km long Red Sea and Arabian Gulf coasts. The Red Sea coast has extensive fringing reefs on steep slopes, with 194 coral species in 70 genera, and 450 fish species. Most reefs are in excellent condition with only local tourism and limited artisanal fishing, but there are virtually no fishing regulations. Other impacts come from sediment from industrial and urban development, land filling and coastal engineering, with some chemical pollution. The Farasan Islands and Umm Al-Qamari Island are marine protected areas, and moratoriums on development have been approved for another 46 sites.

The Gulf coast has gentle slopes with vast shallow areas of sandy and muddy bottoms, thus there are few reefs. There is more development on the Gulf coast than on the Red Sea coast, with greater impacts from waste disposal, dredging, altered water circulation, pollution, and overfishing. The reefs were damaged by oil and soot during the Gulf War, but are recovering. There is one marine protected area (Jubail Marine Wildlife Sanctuary).

There are excellent, highly biodiverse, fringing and patch reefs along the Gulf of Aden coast of Somalia, with a mix of Indian Ocean, Red Sea and Arabian Sea species. These reefs suffer few natural disturbances and have a high coral cover (more than 90% in places) from the reef flat down to 8 m. There is some shark fishing on the Gulf of Aden coast, but this has had little impact on the reefs. There are no plans for reef protection, but IUCN is working with local administrators, donors, and other NGOs, to monitor fisheries and establish a protected area in the Saad ed Din Islands. There are also reefs near the Kenyan border, but the area is inaccessible, and little is known about the reefs or the threats to them.

Much of the 750 km Red Sea coast is bordered by fringing reefs. In the shallow water near the coast, the reefs are from 1 km to 3 km wide. These are separated by a wide deep channel from barrier and platform reefs, 1–14 km wide. The sea floor then drops to hundreds of meters. These are amongst the richest reefs in the Red Sea, with a high diversity of species, for example 71 coral species occur on Sanganeb and Wingate Reefs. There are also dugong and sea turtles.

There is little fishing on Sudan reefs. Limited tourism results in local damage from anchors, waste disposal, and spearfishing. There is some pollution from shipping and land reclamation near Port Sudan. There is one marine park (Sanganeb Atoll Marine National Park), however, management and enforcement are not strong. Sudan is planning to work with Egypt to establish the Gebel Elba Conservation Area.

Many bank and patch reefs, with less than 10% coral cover, grow in shallow water around offshore islands along the 550 km Gulf coast. There is some recreational diving but little fishing, and little is known about these reefs or their conservation.

The 500 km of Red Sea coast is shallow, with high turbidity and soft sediments that limit coral growth but favour seagrass beds. About 25% of this shore has fringing reefs or coral communities, with some better developed reefs in the north. But diversity and coral cover (12%) are low.

The Arabian Sea coast has some areas of mixed coral and algal communities with low live coral cover. There are several islands with low diversity fringing and patch reefs (Aden, Mukulla, Bir Ali and Belhaf). Traditional fishing and minimal tourism cause little damage. Destructive fishing and illegal discharge of waste are banned, although sewage pollution may reach damaging levels around coastal towns. Yemen has proposed four areas as marine protected areas, including parts of the Socotra Archipelago.

There is often overlap among institutions responsible for coastal management, and there are also ambiguous laws and regulations in most countries. Enforcement is generally lacking, with the exception of well-managed marine protected areas in Egypt, Israel and Jordan, where fishing and tourism are closely regulated. Most other marine protected areas are ‘paper parks’.

In the Middle East there are regional conservation plans, supported by the Global Environmental Facility of the World Bank, for Djibouti, Egypt, Eritrea, and Yemen. In addition, the Marine Environmental Initiative Plan and Red Sea Marine Peace Park for the Gulf of Aqaba, the Kuwait Action Plan (The Arabian Gulf, Gulf of Oman, and the Arabian Sea), and the Red Sea and Gulf of Aden Action Plan, all focus attention on problems facing coral reefs. A Strategic Action Program (SAP), focusing on coral reef conservation, was initiated in 1995 by the Regional Organization for the Conservation of the Environment of the Red Sea and Gulf of Aden (PERSGA), with support from countries of the region, the Global Environment Facility, and donors like the Islamic Development Bank.

In Middle East countries, there is insufficient research and monitoring, with the possible exception of Israel. This situation could be assisted by establishing networks within compatible countries to standardise methods, implement necessary capacity building, coordinate management, and integrate programmes to raise awareness. Improved monitoring of oil pollution, sharing of detection skills and clean-up mechanisms, will benefit many Middle East countries. These activities and conservation measures will require funding from the oil and tourism industries, and from external agencies and governments with strategic interests in the region. The strong political tensions in the region have hindered a regional approach to coastal management, and this continues, with difficulties in getting better representation at International Coral Reef Initiative meetings.

Moustafa Fouda heads the Department of Fisheries Science & Technology at Sultan Qaboos University, Sultanate of Oman. Other advice was obtained from Rod Salm, IUCN Nairobi and Simon Wilson from the Ministry of Regional Municipalities and Environment in Oman.