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AIMS statement
Montara Well Head Platform oil leak
24 September 2009
The purpose of this statement is to summarise current science knowledge
on issues surrounding the oil leak at the Montara Well Head Platform off the
Kimberley coast and to highlight relevant AIMS research in the area.
Summary of the event
- The leak occurred at 0530 (Darwin time) on 21 August 2009 in the
Montara platform approximately 690 km west of Darwin in the Northern
Territory and 250 km northwest of Truscott in Western Australia. It is
composed of gas, condensate and crude oil. The release is ongoing;
- The platform is located at Latitude 12° 40.33’S, 124° 32.37’E;
- The leak has been treated with dispersants applied by Australian
Maritime Safety Authority (AMSA) dispersant spraying craft, and by surface
vessels;
- The leak initially travelled in a north, north-east direction.
Subsequently it appears to have travelled over a broader area to the
north, east and west of the platform (see Figure 1);
- The volume of material released is reported to have decreased over
time.
The Australian Maritime
Safety Authority (AMSA) has primary responsibility to respond to the
spill and carry out clean-up measures under the requirements of "The
National Plan to Combat Pollution of the Sea by Oil and other Noxious and
Hazardous Substances". AMSA works with State/Northern Territory (NT)
governments, the shipping, oil, exploration and chemical industries,
emergency services to maximise Australia's marine pollution response
capability. AMSA media releases concerning the leak, issued every few days,
are found on its
website.
Information on the dispersants used has been provided by AMSA. PTTEP
Australasia, which owns and operates the Montara Development Project,
provides regular information statements on efforts to stop the leak on its
website.
Figure 1. Extent of new and weathered oil in and
around the Montara well head platform. Image sourced from AMSA
update, 18 September 2009.
Summary of state of knowledge
(see Annex 1 for
additional information and background on each of the following topics)
LOCAL ENVIRONMENT AND COMMUNITIES
- There is a reasonable amount of physical and biological information on
the area of the slick available from AIMS, Geoscience Australia, CSIRO,
State Museums and Departments (Fisheries, Environment, etc), and also
surveys and studies on the emergent islands and reefs. A summary of
relevant AIMS research is provided
here;
The reefs most likely to be affected, those in shallow water (less
that 50-60 m depth), have only a patchy distribution in this bioregion.
Reefs that are 20-40 m below the surface are unlikely to be directly
affected by floating oil slicks, although they could be affected by
dispersed oil;
The area does contain reefs that rise close to the surface or above,
such as Ashmore Reef, Cartier Reef and Scott Reef. Some of these reefs,
including Scott Reef, are well characterised by recent research
activities, particularly those of AIMS.
"Cartier and Ashmore Reef are regarded as biodiversity hotspots
supporting a diverse array of terrestrial and marine species, in
particular marine turtles, sea snakes, reef building corals, fish and
other marine invertebrate fauna" (DEWHA website).
LOCAL FISHERIES
- The oil leak is potentially affecting small trap and line fishery
targeting primarily gold band snapper and red emperor;
- Concern has been expressed about how dispersants being used to get the
oil into the water column may affect key fisheries the habitats;
- The spawning season for the gold band snapper is January to April with
a peak in March, and for the Red Emperor is October.
TOXICITY OF OIL AND OIL DISPERSANTS
- Oil has been flowing into the environment for over a month. The slick
has therefore undergone numerous changes in shape, size, chemical and
physical attributes. No observational data have been released on how the
oil slick is changing in chemical or physical structure over time;
- Crude oil is a complex mixture of thousands of hydrocarbons of
different molecular weights. The most volatile components will evaporate
quickly from the sea surface. More persistent components are degraded by
photo-oxidation (sunlight) and biological (microbial) processes, although
some compounds can be very resistant;
- Chemical dispersants (powerful detergents) are often applied to oil
slicks on the surface to accelerate weathering processes and to disperse
the oil into the water column in order to minimise the surface transport
of oil to sensitive habitats such as foreshores;
- Both oil and dispersants (and mixtures of these) have been shown to
have a toxic effect on corals, coral larvae and fish larvae (affecting
respiration and reproduction) and can cause mortality if exposed to high
concentrations for a prolonged period;
- The level of impact that actually occurs will depend on a complex
interaction between many factors including: concentration, age, chemical
and physical properties of the oil (or oil/dispersant mixture) at the time
of contact, susceptibility of particular species and the health, age and
reproductive status of the individuals;
- Although AIMS does not have sufficient information to make any
prediction on the likely effect of the oil leak on sensitive species or
habitats, the following points are relevant:
- It is known that there are natural oil and gas seeps in the Timor
Sea which have been releasing low levels of hydrocarbons for many
thousands of years;
- This and other available evidence suggests that the Timor Sea
ecosystem may be chronically adapted to low levels of petroleum in the
environment but not adapted to high concentrations such as those that
may occur during oil leaks;
- It is known that reef corals are highly sensitive to both oil and
oil/dispersant mixtures, causing loss of symbiotic zooxanthellae (tiny
algae living in coral), reduced metabolism, cell death, decreased
reproductive success, impaired tissue development, behavioural changes,
and colony death;
- The early life stages (eggs, larvae, juveniles) of corals, fishes
and other marine invertebrate life are most vulnerable to aquatic
pollution;
- Corals are particularly sensitive to oil and dispersants during the
spawning season since broadcast coral eggs and larvae collect at the
surface and may interact directly with surface slicks;
- Corals on reefs such as Ashmore, Cartier and Scott may spawn during
the spring (normally a week after the full moon in October or November);
- Calculation of risks to spawning corals should consider not only the
spawning period, but also the subsequent month encompassing the
colonisation and establishment of vulnerable metamorphic stages on reef
substrates;
- There is good evidence that remote oceanic reefs such as Ashmore,
Cartier and Scott are self-seeding over ecological time scales. Recovery
from damage by oil is thus likely to be far slower in such isolated
reefs than in coastal settings and/or interconnected groups of reefs;
- Larger animals are also potentially impacted by oil through
asphyxiation, poisoning due to contact with fresh oil, lowering of
tolerance thresholds (due to sub-lethal poisoning), and starvation
through loss of food sources;
- Surface dependent animals such as sea birds, reptiles (turtles, sea
snakes) and mammals (whales, dolphins and possibly dugong) would be much
more susceptible to serious impact if they encounter a surface slick;
- Sea snakes, turtles, sharks, whales and whale sharks are all known
to pass through the general oil leak area;
AIMS research activities in northwest Australia
AIMS, Australia’s tropical marine research agency, has assisted in
responding to the oil leak by providing expert advice on the ecosystems of
the region. AIMS has over 15 years of experience in researching marine
ecosystems off northwest Australia. Figure 2 shows the location of sampling
and research activities conducted by AIMS. Key issues which have been
addressed through this research include:
- dispersion and fate of effluents associated with the oil and gas
industry;
- nature, fate and significance of natural background hydrocarbon seeps;
- patterns, and key drivers of primary and secondary production in the
area;
- life history and population dynamics of commercial species;
- distribution and dynamics of key benthic habitats (especially coral
reefs and shoals);
- life history, inter-connections and environmental sensitivities of
corals and coral populations in the area
A list of relevant publications is provided in
Annex 2.
While there is currently insufficient information available to AIMS to
make any firm predictions on the likely effect of the oil leak on sensitive
species or habitats, the Institute will continue to monitor the situation
and will participate as needed in any longer term analyses of impacts.
Annex 1. Additional
background material
LOCAL ENVIRONMENT AND COMMUNITIES
The Ashmore-Cartier Reef systems fall within the IMCRA designated Oceanic
Shoals national bioregion, which also includes numerous submerged shoals
running along the edge of Australia's continental shelf.
The key characteristics of the ecosystem in the area of the leak (near
Ashmore and Cartier Islands) and the key/important/endangered marine and
land species in the area are described in literature from the Northern
Territory and Western Australian museums.
The small booklet titled "Marine faunal surveys of Ashmore Reef and
Cartier Island North-western Australia" (Records of the Western Australian
Museum), published in 1993, is a useful reference to local marine life.
Another book titled "Big Bank Shoals of the Timor Sea" (Australian
Institute of Marine Science), published in 1997, is a useful source of
information on habitats and biodiversity of submerged shoals in the region.
The eastern Timor Sea includes a mix of habitats and ecosystems that are
typical of tropical continental shelf waters. In shallow water (less than
50-60 m depth), coral reef communities exist where there is hard seabed
structure, but the distribution of this habitat type throughout the
bioregion is patchy. The plateaux of the submerged shoals typically lie
20-40 m below the surface and hence would not be directly affected by
floating oil slicks. There are emergent reef areas such as Ashmore Reef,
Cartier Reef and Scott Reef.
One of the best known reef systems in the area is Scott Reef,
approximately 230 km southwest of Cartier Reef. Scott Reef is one of three
emergent oceanic reef systems off Western Australia and is biologically
diverse with approximately 720 species of fish, 300 species of corals and
thousands of species of marine invertebrates, including sponges, molluscs,
echinoderms and crustaceans (Scott Reef Research Report 2008).
AIMS, with funding from the Browse Basin Joint Venture led by Woodside
Energy, is involved in the Scott Reef Research Project (SRRP) designed to
understand the shallow water coral and fish communities, deep water
communities, physical and biological oceanography of the area.
LOCAL FISHERIES
Oil from the leak initially headed north and northeast and has entered a
trap and line fishery area targeting the key species gold band snapper and
red emperor (900 tonnes per year with 11 licences and seven boats). The
Montara platform is in the northernmost part of the fishery area but in a
zone which is highly fished. The fishery is managed by the Western
Australian Department of Fisheries and the Commonwealth, but operational
responsibility is largely with the State.
The snapper fishery has marketed itself as a ‘clean’ fishery and is
concerned about the reputational risk even if no tainting of fish products
is detected. The industry is concerned about the use of dispersants, which
have mixed the oil into the water column where it can contact the egg and
larval stages of bottom-dwelling species.
TOXICITY OF OIL AND OIL DISPERSANTS
Geophysical evidence indicates that natural oil and gas seepage may have
been occurring since the Miocene (Burns et al. in review). There are however
major questions about the role played by natural oil and ground water seeps
in these systems as sources of nutrients, carbon and trace elements to local
ecosystems.
K.A. Burns, D Brinkman, GJ Brunskill, GA Logan, H Volk, K Wasmund, I
Zagorskis (in review) Fluxes and fate of petroleum hydrocarbons in the
Timor Sea ecosystem with special reference to active natural hydrocarbon
seepage. Marine Chemistry
It is well established that microbial communities in marine sediments
previously exposed to hydrocarbons degrade and respond to additional inputs
of hydrocarbons considerably faster than non-exposed communities under both
aerobic and anaerobic conditions. The rapid degradation of petroleum
hydrocarbons within surface sediments of the Timor Sea is therefore likely
to be assisted by resident microbes that have been well primed by long-term
exposure to seep-derived hydrocarbons (Burns et al. in review).
Biochemical studies have also shown the low level induction of
hydrocarbon degrading enzymes in several tropical fish of the NW shelf is
also a general phenomenon (Codi et al. 2005). Thus, the Timor Sea ecosystem
may be adapted to chronically low levels of petroleum in the environment.
Low levels of oil pollution should not be a problem unless they become
chronic or permanent. High concentrations at specific locations would be the
most deleterious, especially if they occur over shallow reefs.
Toxicity
The application of dispersants has increased the weathering of the oil
and is likely to increase hydrocarbon concentration in the water column,
thereby increasing the exposure of benthic reef organisms.
Many studies have shown that it is the aromatic content of petroleum,
particularly polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs), that are the principal
determinants of the toxicity of oil to aquatic organisms i.e. water
accommodated fractions (WAFs) prepared from oils higher in aromatics are
more toxic than WAFs prepared from crude oils and gasoline.
The assumption that aromatics determine petroleum toxicity has also been
incorporated into oil spill natural resource damage assessments and
assessments of toxicity to aquatic organisms is usually conducted with
predicted concentrations of dissolved aromatics in spill water. It is known
that PTTEP Australasia (Ashmore Cartier) Pty Ltd has characterised the oil
for the trajectory modelling and to calculate aromatic concentration in the
water, but the data have not been made available publicly.
Overall, the level of impact which actually occurs will depend on a
complex interaction between many factors including: concentration, age,
chemical and physical properties of the oil (or oil/dispersant mixture) at
the time of contact. There is no generalised prediction of the effects that
could occur but it is known that corals are sensitive to oil and oil
dispersants and that coral spawning may be occurring at the reefs and this
will affect the management response.
Adult corals
In terms of adult coral colonies, it is known that coral reef communities
are highly sensitive to both oil and oil/dispersant mixtures.
See for example:
Shafir S, Van Rijn J, Rinkevich B (2007) Short and long term toxicity
of crude oil and oil dispersants to two representative coral species.
Environmental Science & technology 41, 5571-5574
The sensitivity of corals to oil and oil dispersant mixtures is well
known and according to The National Plan to Combat Pollution of the Sea by
Oil and other Noxious and Hazardous Substances, oil leak responders will
avoid using dispersants in or near coral reefs, in shallow waters, sea grass
beds or where poor water exchange or circulation is apparent, unless in
exceptional circumstances to protect mangroves or other highly sensitive
foreshores.
Juvenile Corals
Oil spills are particularly significant for corals since broadcast coral
gametes will collect at the surface and may be exposed to petroleum products
in the form of a slick i.e. coral eggs and larvae are buoyant for the first
few days after spawning and could suffer significant mortality if any oil or
oil/dispersant mixture in encountered in significant concentrations.
Also, there is increasing evidence that the metamorphosis stage of
juvenile coral development is particularly susceptible to oil, so spawning
time should be considered a sensitive time for coral reefs.
There have been two recent papers from AIMS scientists on a secondary
broadcast spawning event during the spring in a subset of coral species:
Rosser NL, Gilmour JP (2008) New insights into patterns of coral
spawning on Western Australian reefs. Coral Reefs 27: 345-349
Gilmour JP, Smith LD, Brinkman RM (2009) Biannual spawning, rapid
larval development and evidence of self seeding for scleractinian corals
at an isolated system of reefs. Marine Biology (in press)
Given that the regional synchrony of the autumn spawning period
(Feb-April) has been noted in a triangle between Singapore, Ningaloo and
East Timor, it is reasonable to expect that a few species of coral at places
such as Ashmore and Cartier would spawn at the same time as at Scott Reef
during either October or November. This is likely to be seven days after the
full moon (i.e. October 11 or November 9, 2009).
There are some experimental data available from AIMS scientists (Negri
and Heyward 2000) of oil and dispersant toxicity conducted in Australia
using heavy crude oil (Wandoo platform) and Corexit 9527 (a dispersant which
is stockpiled for use in Australia and which may be used in the present
spill clean-up).
Negri and Heyward (2000) Inhibition of Fertilization and Larval
Metamorphosis of the Coral Acropora millepora (Ehrenberg, 1834) by
Petroleum Products. Marine Pollution Bulletin Vol. 41, Numbers 7-12
420-427
The results show that (1) larval metamorphosis was more sensitive than
fertilisation to crude oil, (2) although crude oil and dispersant inhibited
larval metamorphosis individually, this toxicity was magnified when larvae
were exposed to combinations of both, and (3) crude oil WAF did not inhibit
fertilisation of gametes until dispersant was introduced.
Overall, dispersed oil was slightly more toxic to fertilisation than
dispersant alone, suggesting toxicity to that event may be additive.
Larval metamorphosis was more sensitive than fertilisation to crude oil.
Although crude oil and dispersant inhibited larval metamorphosis
individually, this toxicity was magnified when larvae were exposed to
combinations of both.
Overall, the studies indicate that management of petroleum-related risks
to spawning corals should consider not only the occurrence of spawning
event, but also the subsequent 1-3-week period during which most larval
metamorphosis and recruitment occur.
The isolation of reefs such as Cartier Reef is also particularly
significant. Evidence that remote reefs may well be self seeding over
ecological time scales has been corroborated by recent genetic work and
analyses of DNA microsatellite markers that show larvae from Scott Reef
corals disperse over very short distances (Underwood et al. 2007, Underwood
et al. 2008)
Underwood JN, Smith LD, Van Oppen MJH, Gilmour JP (2009) Ecologically
relevant dispersal of corals on isolated reefs: implications for managing
resilience. Ecological Applications 19:18-29.
Underwood JN (in press) Genetic diversity and divergence among coastal
and offshore reefs in a mass-spawning coral depend on geographic
discontinuity and oceanic currents. Evolutionary Applications
Underwood JN, Smith LD, Van Oppen MJH, Gilmour JP (2007) Multiple
scales of genetic connectivity in a brooding coral on isolated reefs
following catastrophic bleaching. Molecular Ecology 16: 771-784
Annex 2.
AIMS research activities in northwest Australia: Publications
AIMS has carried out a wide range of research in northwest Australia over
the past 15 years. This includes work targeted directly at the influence and
significance of oil and gas activities in the area, as well as more general
work that provides background information on the structure and dynamics of
specific components of the ecosystem. A brief description of key research
areas and relevant publications arising from this research are summarised
below.
Environmental management
As a part of the North West Shelf Marine Environmental Management Study (NWSEMS)
several organisations were engaged to develop the science-based methods
required to support integrated regional planning and management of the North
West Shelf (NWS) marine environment. AIMS scientists were involved in some
of the review of available data and identification of important knowledge
gaps
Sherwood CR, Heyward AJ, Revill AT, Scott L and Fandry
CB (1999) Environmental management on the North West Shelf: A review of
existing data. APPEA Journal 39: 568-583.
Heyward AJ, Revill AT and Sherwood CR (1999)
Environmental management of the North West Shelf: A review of existing
data. Australian Institute of Marine Science & CSIRO.
Jernakoff P, Scott L, Heyward AJ, Revill AT and
Sherwood CR (1999) Bibliography of research and data relevant to marine
environment management of Australia's North West Shelf. Australian
Institute of Marine Science & CSIRO.
Heyward AJ, Revill AT and Sherwood CR (2006) Review of
research and data relevant to marine environmental management of
Australia's north west shelf. Produced for the Western Australian
Department of Environmental Protection. 74 p.
Gilmour JP, Cooper TF, Fabricius KE and Smith LD (2006)
Early warning indicators of change in corals and coral communities
responding to anthropogenic stressors in the Pilbara, Western Australia.
Environmental Protection Authority, Western Australia. 100 p
Physical/Chemical Oceanography and Climatology
Understanding ocean circulation on the North West Shelf (NWS) is critical
for the development of models for sediment transport, nutrient cycling, and
primary and secondary production. Studies on internal waves and tides
features predominantly in the literature as they are involved in generating
currents and influence nutrient upwelling and delivery. AIMS scientists have
primarily been involved in work examining the formation of internal waves
and meso-scale studies of sediment delivery to the nearshore environment.
The climatology of the NWS area has been discussed in Lough (1999).
Burrage DM, Massel SR, Steinberg CR and Skirving WJ
(1996) Detecting Surface and Internal Wave Signatures on the Northwest
Australian Shelf using the ERS1&2 Active Microwave Instrumentation
(AMI). pp. 11--26. In: Proceedings of First Australian ERS1 Symposium
held at Hobart, Tasmania during the 3rd National AMOS Conference, 5-7
Feb., 1996. COSSA.
Wolanski EJ and Spagnol SB (2003) Dynamics of the
turbidity maximum in King Sound, tropical Western Australia. Estuarine
Coastal and Shelf Science 56: 877-890.
Wolanski EJ, Spagnol SB and Williams DK (2004) The
impact of damming the Ord River on the fine sediment budget in Cambridge
Gulf, northwestern Australia. Journal of Coastal Research 20: 801-
Wolanski EJ, Moore K, Spagnol SB, D'Adamo N and
Pattiaratchi C (2001) Rapid, human-induced siltation of the macro-tidal
Ord River estuary, Western Australia. Estuarine Coastal and Shelf
Science 53: 717-732.
Brunskill GJ, Orpin A, Zagorskis IE, Woolfe KJ and
Ellison JC (2001) Geochemistry and particle size of surface sediments of
Exmouth Gulf, Northwest Shelf, Australia. Continental Shelf Research 21:
157-201.
Lough JM (1999) Coastal climate of northwest
Australia and comparisons with the Great Barrier Reef: 1960 to 1992.
Coral Reefs 17: 351-367.
In a series of papers focused on the Harriet A platform, AIMS scientists
have been involved in understanding the dispersion, fate and effect of
effluents from the offshore oil and gas industry. This has included
understanding the environmental significance of Produce Formation Water (PFW)
constituents, the likely dispersion rates of PFW and the ultimate fate and
toxicity of PFW to local fauna.
King BA and McAllister FA (1997) Modelling the
Dispersion of Produced Water Discharge in Australia. Volume 1. The
application of MUDMAP to investigate the dilution and mixing of the
above-water discharge at the "Harriet A" petroleum platform on the
Northwest Shelf.
Burns KA and Codi S (1998) Non-volatile hydrocarbon
chemistry studies around a production platform on Australia's Northwest
Shelf. APPEA Journal 626-630.
Burns KA and Codi S (1999) Non-volatile hydrocarbon
chemistry studies around a production platform on Australia’s northwest
Shelf. Estuarine Coastal and Shelf Science 49 : 853-876.
Burns KA, Codi S, Furnas MJ, Heggie D, Holdway D,
King BA and McAllister FA (1999) Dispersion and fate of produced
formation water constituents in an Australian northwest shelf shallow
water ecosystem. Marine Pollution Bulletin 38: 593-603.
Burns KA, Codi S, Furnas MJ, McAllister FA, Mitchell
AW, Heggie D, Holdway D and King BA (1997) Project 2507.2, Dispersion
and fates of produced formation water constituents in a Northwest Shelf
shallow water ecosystem and Bass Strait. Final Report. Australian
Institute of Marine Science. 248 p.
Negri A and Heyward A (2000) Inhibition of
Fertilization and Larval Metamorphosis of the Coral Acropora
millepora (Ehrenberg, 1834) by Petroleum Products. Marine Pollution
Bulletin Vol. 41, Numbers 7-12 420-427
Jones RJ, Heyward A (2003) The effects of Produced
Formation Water (PFW), an effluent from the offshore oil and gas
industry, on coral and isolated symbiotic dinoflagellates. Marine and
Freshwater Research 54: 1-10
Some AIMS studies have involved understanding the significance of natural
background seeps in the NWS region and the fate of hydrocarbons following
marine discharge. These studies have been identified natural hydrocarbon
degrading bacteria and identified rapid rates of hydrocarbon utilisation.
More recent biochemical studies have also shown that the low level induction
of hydrocarbon degrading enzymes in several tropical fish of the NW shelf is
a general phenomenon and hence the Timor Sea ecosystems may be adapted to
chronically low levels of petroleum in the environment.
Burns KA, Volkman JK, Cavanagh JE and Brinkman DL
(2003) Lipids as biomarkers for carbon cycling on the Northwest Shelf of
Australia: Results from a sediment trap study. Marine Chemistry 80:
103-128
Burns KA, Greenwood PF, Summons R and Brunskill GJ
(2001) Vertical fluxes of hydrocarbons on the Northwest Shelf of
Australia as estimated by a sediment trap study. Organic Geochemistry 32
:1241-1255.
Frampton DMF (2000). The effect of elevated local
hydrocarbon concentrations on sediment microbial communities in bioherms
on Australia's northwest shelf. James Cook University.
Zhu S, Codi King S and Haasch ML (2008) Biomarker
induction in tropical fish species on the Northwest Shelf of Australia
by produced formation water. Marine Environmental Research 65 : 315-
Codi King S, Johnson JE, Burns KA, Haasch ML, Ryan
DAJ and Ahokas JT (2005) Summary results from a pilot study conducted
around an oil production platform on the northwest shelf of Australia.
Marine Pollution Bulletin 50: 1163-1172.
Johnson JE and Hill RT (2003) Sediment microbes of
deep-sea bioherms on the northwest shelf of Australia. Microbial Ecology
46: 55-61.
Biological Oceanography
Research into primary and secondary productivity of the
North West Shelf has generally been episodic and expeditionary based
(Heyward et al. 2006). AIMS has sampled intensively, at fine scale for
primary and secondary productivity in the nearby region of North West Cape
and the Murion Islands, with some additional studies adjacent to the Monte
Bellos. Temporal and spatial variability in zooplankton abundance has mostly
been examined as these are important food sources for large filter-feeders
such as whale shark, manta rays and humpback whales.
Wilson SG, Carleton JH and Meekan MG (2003) Spatial
and temporal patterns in the distribution and abundance of
macrozooplankton on the southern North West Shelf, Western Australia.
Estuarine Coastal and Shelf Science 56: 897-908.
Wilson SG, Meekan MG, Carleton JH, Stewart TC and
Knott B (2003) Distribution, abundance and reproductive biology of
Pseudeuphausia latifrons and other euphausiids on the southern North
West Shelf, Western Australia. Marine Biology 142: 369-379.
Moritz CM, Montagnes D, Carleton JH, Wilson D and
McKinnon AD (2006) The potential role of microzooplankton in a
northwestern Australian pelagic food web. Marine Biology Research 2:
1-13.
McKinnon AD, Meekan MG, Carleton JH, Furnas MJ,
Talbot S and Skirving WJ (2003) Rapid changes in shelf waters and
pelagic communities on the southern Northwest Shelf, Australia,
following a tropical cyclone. Continental Shelf Research 23: 93-111.
Furnas, M.J. & Mitchell, A.W., 1998. Biological and
chemical oceanographic processes in shallow North West Shelf waters
surrounding the Harriet A production platform. The APPEA Journal, 38:
655–664.
McKinnon, A.D. & Ayukai, T., 1996. Copepod egg
production and food resources in Exmouth Gulf, Western Australia.
Australian Journal of Marine and Freshwater Research, 47: 595–603.
Fish/fisheries research
Good taxonomic data exists for the piscine fauna of the NWS, but there
are limited studies providing ecological information on the nearshore and
intertidal fish communities (Heyward et al. 2006). Commercial fishing is an
important activity on the North West Shelf and AIMS scientists have been
involved in filling in some of the information gaps including the life
history and population dynamics of the numerous fish and invertebrate
species throughout the region.
Jackson GD, Meekan MG, Wotherspoon S and Jackson CH
(2008) Distributions of young cephalopods in the tropical waters of
Western Australia over two consecutive summers. ICES Journal of Marine
Science 65: 140-147.
Meekan MG, Wilson SG, Halford AR and Retzel A (2001)
A comparison of catches of fishes and invertebrates by two light trap
designs in tropical NW Australia. Marine Biology 139: 373-381.
Sampey A, Meekan MG, Carleton JH, McKinnon AD and
McCormick MI (2004) Temporal patterns in distributions of tropical fish
larvae on the North-west Shelf of Australia. Marine and Freshwater
Research 55: 473-487.
Hutchins JB, Williams DMcB, Newman SJ, Cappo MC and
Speare PJ (1995) New records of fishes for the Rowley Shoals, Scott/Seringapatam
Reefs, off northwestern Australia. Records of the Western Australian
Museum 17: 119-123.
Meekan MG, Carleton JH, Steinberg CR, McKinnon AD,
Brinkman RM, Doherty PJ, Halford AR, Talbot S and Mason L (2006)
Turbulent mixing and mesoscale distributions of late stage larval fishes
on the NW Shelf of Western Australia. Fisheries Oceanography 15: 44-59.
Meekan MG, Vigliola L, Hansen A, Doherty PJ, Halford
AR and Carleton JH (2006) Bigger is better: size-selective mortality
throughout the life history of a fast-growing clupeid, Spratelloides
gracilis. Marine Ecology Progress Series 317: 237-244.
Biological Surveys /Habitat Assessments
AIMS scientists have been very involved in survey work characterising the
biological communities of the NWS region, including the Kimberley coast and
the Timor Sea. This work has involved underwater video surveys, fish
surveys, towed camera techniques and automated underwater vehicles.
Heyward AJ (1999) Montebello Island Region -
Biodiversity Values. Australian Institute of Marine Science.
Brooke B, Nichol S, Hughes M, McArthur M, Anderson TJ,
Przeslawski R, Siwabessy J, Heyward AJ, Battershill CN, Colquhoun J and
Doherty PJ (2009) Carnarvon Shelf Survey Post-Survey Report. 12 August -
15 September 2008. Geoscience Australia Record 2009/02. Geoscience
Australia. 101 p.
Long S, Armstrong S, Fabricius KE, Field IC, Cook K,
Colquhoun J and Huisman J (2008) Comparative marine biodiversity survey
of the Rowley Shoals, 1-17 Dec 2007: metadata report. Government of
Western Australia. Dept. of Environment and Conservation and Australian
Institute of Marine Science. 14 p.
Gilmour JP, Cheal AJ, Smith LD, Underwood JN, Meekan
MG, Fitzgibbon B and Rees M (2007) Data compilation and analysis for
Rowley Shoals: Mermaid, Imperieuse and Clerke reefs. Prepared for the
Department of the Environment and Water Resources. Australian Institute
of Marine Science. 118 p.
Fry G, Heyward AJ, Wassenberg T, Ellis N, Taranto T,
Keesing JK, Irvine T, Stieglitz TC and Colquhoun J (2008) Benthic
habitat surveys of potential LNG hub locations in the Kimberley region.
A study commissioned by the Western Australian Marine Science
Institution on behalf of the Northern Development Taskforce. Final
Report. CSIRO National Research Flagships - Wealth from Oceans and
Australian Institute of Marine Science. 131 p.
Rees M, Colquhoun J, Smith LD and Heyward AJ (2003)
Survey of trochus, holothuria, giant clams and the coral communities at
Ashmore, Cartier Reef and Mermaid Reef, northwestern Australia. Report
to Environment Australia. Australian Institute of Marine Science. 64 p
Heyward AJ (1998) Temporal and spatial patterns of
coral and fish assemblages at Scott Reef, 1994-97. Australian Institute
of Marine Science. 45 p.
Heyward AJ and Rees M (1999) Scott Reef deeper lagoon
habitat preview and recommendations for further assessment. Australian
Institute of Marine Science. 14 p
Steinberg CR, Brinkman RM, McAllister FA and McLean C
(1999) AIMS Data Report: North West Cape. October 1998-March 1999.
Australian Institute of Marine Science. 129 p.
Heyward AJ, Halford AR, Smith LD and Williams DMcB
(1995) Coral Reef Ecosystems of North West Australia: Long-term
monitoring of corals and fish at North Scott, South Scott and
Seringapatam Reefs. Australian Institute of Marine Science.
Heyward AJ, Halford AR, Smith LD and Williams DMcB
(1997) Coral reefs of north west Australia: baseline monitoring of an
oceanic reef ecosystem. 1: 289-294. In: Proceedings of the 8th
International Coral Reef Symposium, Panama, 24-29 June 1996. Smithsonian
Tropical Research Institute.
Heyward AJ, Rees M and Cappo MC (2000) Summary of
research sampling achieved and preliminary interpretations from a Scott
Reef biological survey expedition, December 1999. 35p.
Heyward AJ, Rees M, Cappo MC, Smith LD, Speare PJ and
Halford AR (2000) Characterisation of Scott Reef lagoon biota: fish and
macrobenthos. Scott Reef biological survey expedition, December 1999.
Australian Institute of Marine Science. 80 p.
McAllister FA (2006) AIMS activities - Northwest
Shelf 1993-2003. Final Report November 2006. Australian Institute of
Marine Science. 87 p.
Heyward AJ, Pinceratto E and Smith LD (1997) Big Bank
Shoals of the Timor Sea: an environmental resource atlas. Australian
Institute of Marine Science & BHP Petroleum. 115 p.
Smith LD, Rees M, Colquhoun J and Heyward AJ (2005)
Survey of beche-de-mer and trochus populations at Ashmore Reef: baseline
survey. The Beagle, Records of the Museums and Art Galleries of the
Northern Territory Supplement 1: 177-183.
Smith LD, Rees M, Heyward AJ and Colquhoun J (2002)
Stocks of trochus and beche-de-mer at Cartier Reef: 2001 surveys. Report
for Environment Australia. Australian Institute of Marine Science. 26 p.
Benthic Ecological Processes
As a follow-on from the biological survey work, AIMS scientists have
begun to try and understand the important biological processes governing the
benthic ecosystems of the NWS region. These have involved studies on
spawning patterns, genetic diversity and larval connectivity and the ability
of the reefs to recovery from impacts from coral bleaching or cyclone damage
Rosser NL and Gilmour JP (2008) New insights into
patterns of coral spawning on Western Australian reefs. Coral Reefs 27:
345-349.
Underwood JN, Smith LD, Van Oppen MJH, Gilmour JP (2009) Ecologically
relevant dispersal of corals on isolated reefs: implications for
managing resilience. Ecological Applications 19:18-29.
Underwood JN (in press) Genetic diversity and
divergence among coastal and offshore reefs in a mass-spawning coral
depend on geographic discontinuity and oceanic currents. Evolutionary
Applications
Underwood JN, Smith LD, Van Oppen MJH, Gilmour JP
(2007) Multiple scales of genetic connectivity in a brooding coral on
isolated reefs following catastrophic bleaching. Molecular Ecology 16:
771-784
Gilmour JP and Smith LD (2006) Category 5 cyclone at
Scott Reef, northwestern Australia. Coral Reefs 25(2): 200.
Heyward AJ, Smith LD, Halford AR, Rees M and Meekan
MG (1999) Natural variability at Scott Reef: Short term response of
coral and fish assemblages to a severe coral bleaching event. Australian
Institute of Marine Science. 35 p.
September 24, 2009
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